LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

GIF'T   OF" 

Mrs.  SARAH  P.  WALSWORTH. 

Received  October,  1894. 
Accessions  No.lLt      Class  No. 


A   SYNOPSIS 


OF 


NATURAL   HISTORY: 


EMBRACING  THE 


NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ANIMALS, 


WITH 


HUMAN  AND  GENERAL  ANIMAL  PHYSIOLOGY, 
BOTANY,   VEGETABLE   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   GEOLOGY. 


TRANSLATED 
FROM  THE  LATEST  FRENCH  EDITION  OF 

C.  LEMMONNIER, 

PROFESSOR   OF    NATURAL    HISTORY   IN   THE    ROYAL    COLLEGE    OF    CHARLEMAGNE) 
WITH  ADDITIONS  FROM  THE 

WORKS  OF  CUVIER,  DUMARIL,  LACEPEDE,  ETC.; 

AND  ARRANGED  AS  A 

TEXT  BOOK  FOR  SCHOOLS. 


BY  THOMAS  WYATT,  A.M., 

AUTHOR  OF  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY,  MANUAL  OF  CONCHOLOGY,  ETC. 


Illustrated  by  Plates. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
THOMAS  WARDLE,  15  MINOR  STREET. 

MDCCC^XXXIX. 

u  H I V  H  *v  51 T  IT IS 

x* . 


Entered,  according  to  the  act  of  congress,  in  the  year  1839,  by  THOMAS  WYATT,  in  the 
clerk's  office  of  the  district  court  of  the  eastern  district  of  Pennsylvania. 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  Work  here  presented  to  the  public  was  undertaken 
with  the  hope  of  supplying,  in  part  at  least,  what  seemed  a 
remarkable  deficiency  in  the  course  of  academical  study 
pursued  throughout  the  United  States,  under  the  general,  but 
not  often  rigidly  defined  appellation  of  Natural  History* 

In  the  respective  departments  of  the  Natural  History  of 
Animals,  exclusive  of  Corichology  and  Human  Physiology, 
in  this  latter  science  itself,  in  Botany  with  Vegetable  Physio- 
logy, and  in  Geology,  although  much  remains  to  be  done,  still 
there  appears  no  absolute  hiatus,  in  regard  to  the  necessary 
text  books.  I  say  in  these  respective  departments;  but  it, 
must  have  occurred  to  every  scientific  man  who  thinks  upon 
the  subject,  as  singular,  that  in  a  science  whose  very  exist- 
ence may  be  truly  said  to  depend  upon  method,  there  should 
have  been  no  attempt  made  to  collect  the  parts  into  a  readily 
discernible  whole.  The  entire  course  of  Natural  History,  as 
now  taught,  is  only  gleaned  by  the  Student  from  a  variety  of 
distinct  sources — sources  differing  in  manner,  and  often  (from 
the  very  nature  of  sciences  not  included  among  "the  exact") 
discordant,  and  often  conflicting,  in  the  more  important  par- 
ticulars of  matter  and  arrangement.  A  perfect  remedy  for 
this  latter  evil  could,  perhaps,  be  found  only  in  a  work  of 
magnitude,  and  consequent  expense,  unfitting  it  for  general 
dissemination.  It  is,  however,  not  so  much  in  any  thing  of 
this  extended  character,  as  in  a  well  digested  and  fully  com- 
prehensive Synopsis  that  we  are  deficient. 

A  compendium  appears  to  be  wanting,  which,  discarding 


iv  INTRODUCTION. 

the  weakness  of  a  merely  entertaining  selection,  shall  rigidly 
retain  all  which  bears  upon  the  ruling  feature  of  a  proper 
Natural  History — the  feature  of  a  lucidus  or  do. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  absolutely  considered,  the 
tabular  form  would  be  the  best  for  such  a  purpose;  and  ac- 
cordingly we  find  that  in  France,  M.  Lemmonnier  has  ac- 
quired much  celebrity  by  his  well  arranged  system,  on  which 
this  work  is  based. 

But  what,  in  a  scientific  point  of  view,  is  certainly  an  ad- 
vantage, has,  in  other  respects,  a  very  serious  inconvenience. 
The  tabular  form,  where  the  matter,  as  in  Natural  History, 
is  essentially  complex,  and  subdivision  is  piled,  as  it  were, 
upon  division,  will  admit  of  little  or  no  letter  press,  and  re- 
quires that  the  whole  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  engraver. 
The  expense  is  of  course  enormous,  and  renders  the  book  a 
dead  letter,  as  far  as  regards  its  common  academical  use. 

In  the  volume  now  offered,  the  author  has  ventured  so 
to  modify  that  of  M.  Lemmonnier,  as  to  dismiss  the  body 
of  his  tableaux,  retaining  as  much  of  their  spirit  as  was 
compatible  with  the  objects  in  view,  and  giving  many  useful 
additions  from  the  works  of  Cuvier,  Dumaril,  Lacepede,  and 
other  well  known  naturalists.  The  Botanic  System  of  Lin- 
nseus  is  preserved,  as  in  the  French  original. 

For  a  further  progress  in  the  science,  Dr  Comstock's  In- 
troduction to  Botany  may  be  confidently  recommended,  as  a 
valuable  work  for  Students.  Also  to  Students  in  Geology, 
who  wish  to  extend  their  inquiries,  we  would  respectfully 
recommend  "Lyell's  Elements  of  Geology,"  for  a  first  book, 
and  his  larger  work,  entitled,  "  Lyell's  Principles  of  Geolo- 
gy," both  of  which  are  written  in  the  most  attractive  style, 
and  abundantly  illustrated  by  coloured  plates,  maps,  &c.,  just 
published  by  Kay  &  Brother,  Chestnut  street,  Philadelphia. 
(See  London  Quarterly  Review  and  Silliman's  Journal  of 
Science,  for  notices  of  Mr  Lyell's  works.) 


INTRODUCTION.  V 

In  conclusion,  our  grateful  thanks  are  tendered  to  Dr  R. 
Bridges  of  Philadelphia,  whose  valuable  assistance  has  largely- 
contributed  to  the  accuracy  and  usefulness  of  this  volume ; 
also  to  Dr  H.  M'Murtrie,  and  his  excellent  translation  of 
Cuvier,  which  leaves  nothing  further  to  be  desired,  either  by 
the  teacher  or  the  pupil. 

T.  W. 


ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


PHYSIOLOGY  is  a  science  which  treats  of  the  phenomena  or 
functions  whose  union  constitutes  life.  These  functions  may 
be  distinguished  into  those  which  are  intended  to  connect  the 
living  being  with  the  surrounding  world ;  these  are  called 
functions  of  relation,  and  belong  only  to  animals :  and  those 
whose  object  is  the  preservation  of  the  individual ;  these  are 
common  to  vegetables  and  animals,  and  are  called  functions 
of  nutrition.  The  instruments  by  means  of  which  the  func- 
tions are  accomplished  are  denominated  organs.  Several  of 
these  united  for  the  same  end  form  an  apparatus.  Finally, 
considered  as  a  whole,  they  constitute  an  organization. 

The  organization,  which  is  an  intimate  union  of  form  and 
matter,  is  continually  traversed  by  fluids,  whose  province 
is,  to  convey  nourishment  to  the  organs,  and  to  take  up,  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  off,  what  is  useless.  This  twofold 
movement  of  composition  and  decomposition  is  termed  nutri- 
tion. The  first  of  these  two  forces,  composing  nutrition,  is 
called  absorption;  the  second  bears  the  generic  name  of 
secretion. 

Thus  the  three  great  functions  of  nutrition  do  but  prepare 
and  carry  off  the  elements  which,  as  a  final  result,  are  ab- 
sorbed or  secreted.  Organized  beings  have  been  divided  into 
animate  beings,  or  such  as  are  possessed  of  sense  and  motion ; 
and  inanimate  beings,  or  such  as  are  deprived  of  both  these 
faculties.  The  power  of  spontaneous  movement  in  animals 
requires  essential  modifications  of  organization :  hence  are  de- 
rived in  them  the  characters  of  the  three  great  functions  of 
nutrition,  viz.  the  circulation,  the  respiration  and  the  diges- 
tion. 


10  PHYSIOLOGY. 

CIRCULATION. 

A  function  whose  end  is  the  general  movement  of  the  blood 
in  the  body  of  animals.  This  movement  consists  in  carrying 
the  nutritive  or  arterial  blood  through  all  the  organs,  and  in 
conveying  to  a  respiratory  apparatus  this  same  liquid,  de- 
prived of  the  elements  of  nutrition,  and  loaded  with  matter 
which  should  be  expelled.  The  circulatory  apparatus  offers 
for  consideration  the  heart  and  the  blood  vessels. 

The  Heart. 

The  principal  agent  in  the  impulsion  of  the  blood,  placed 
in  man  within  the  cavity  of  the  thorax,  between  the  lungs, 
the  point  below,  a  little  forward  and  to  the  left.  It  consists 
of  two  sides,  which  have  no  communication  with  each  other : 
the  right  side,  which  is  always  filled  with  venous  blood,  and 
in  which  is  the  right,  auricle,  communicating  only  with  the 
right  ventricle  ;  and  the  left  side,  filled  with  arterial  blood,  in 
which  is  the  left  auricle,  communicating  only  with  the  left 
ventricle. 

Blood  Vessels. 

These  are  of  three  kinds.  The  arteries,  carrying  the  blood 
of  the  heart  to  the  parts.  The  veins,  returning  it  from  the 
parts  to  the  heart.  The  capillary  vessels,  forming  a  commu- 
nication between  the  veins  and  the  arteries. 

Principal  Arteries. 

These  are  the  aorta  and  pulmonary  artery.  The  aorta, 
arising  from  the  base  of  the  left  ventricle,  terminates  at  the 
bottom  of  the  abdomen.  It  is  the  common  trunk  to  the  in- 
nominata,  the  left  carotid  and  the  left  subclavian,  the  c&liac, 
superior  and  inferior  mesenteric,  the  renal  and  the  primitive 
iliacs.  The  right  carotid  and  right  subclavian  are  formed  by 
the  division  of  the  innominata.  The  pulmonary  artery,  ari- 
sing from  the  base  of  the  right  ventricle,  is  divided  into  two 
branches,  which  lose  themselves  in  the  pulmonary  tissue. 

Principal  Veins. 

These  are  the  vena  cava  superior  and  vena  cava  inferior, 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  principal  veins  of  the  body,  and 
terminating,  the  former  at  the  top  and  the  latter  at  the  base 
of  the  right  auricle ;  and  the  pulmonary  veins,  two  on  each 
side,  extending  from  the  lungs  to  the  left  auricle. 


PHYSIOLOGY.  11 

RESPIRATION. 

A  function  common  to  all  animate  beings,  and  by  means 
of  which  in  animals,  the  venous  blood  mixed  with  the  chyle 
obtains  its  nutritive  properties,  under  the  influence  of  the 
oxygen  of  the  atmosphere.  The  atmosphere  surrounds  the 
earth  to  the  extent  of  from  fourteen  to  fifteen  leagues,  and  is 
equal  in  weight  to  a  similar  bed  of  water  about  thirty-two 
feet  in  thickness,  or  of  a  like  one  of  mercury  about  twenty- 
nine  inches  thick.  This  gas  is  formed  of  two  elements — 
twenty-one  being  of  oxygen,  and  seventy-nine  of  azote  in  a 
hundred  parts.  Vapoury  particles  of  water  are  also  found  in 
the  atmosphere,  and  traces  of  carbonic  acid.  This  last  gas 
arises  from  the  circumstance  that  animals,  in  the  act  of  res- 
piration, convert  a  certain  quantity  of  oxygen  into  carbonic 
acid.  It  is  itself  again  decomposed  by  plants,  which  take  to 
themselves  the  carbon  and  give  out  the  oxygen.  The  respi- 
ratory apparatus  is  composed,  in  man,  of  the  thorax,  the  tra- 
chea and  the  lungs. 

Thorax. 

This  is  a  cavity  formed  by  the  dorsal  portion  of  the  verte- 
bral column  behind,  by  the  sternum  before,  and  at  the  sides 
by  the  ribs,  with  the  intercostal  muscles  filling  up  the  spaces 
between  them ;  also  by  a  muscle  called  the  diaphragm,  clo- 
sing the  cavity  below,  and  by  means  of  which  its  capacity 
may  be  increased  or  diminished. 

Trachea, 

Or  wind  pipe,  is  a  cylindrical  canal,  formed  by  the  larynx, 
whose  upper  opening  is  called  the  glottis,  and  by  the  trachea 
proper,  composed  of  little  cartilaginous  rings,  connected  by 
membranous  partitions.  It  terminates  in  the  bronchice,  which 
are  divisions  of  the  trachea,  leading  one  into  each  lung,  of 
which  the  right  is  the  longer. 

Lungs 

Are  spongy  organs,  enveloped  by  pleurce,  and  formed  of  the 
bronchial  divisions  ending  in  a  cul-de-sac  among  the  pulmo- 
nary cells,  the  ramifications  of  the  pulmonary  artery  and 
veins,  and  the  cellular  tissue  uniting  these  diiferent  organs  so 
as  to  form  an  infinity  of  small  cells. 


12  PHYSIOLOGY. 

DIGESTION. 

A  function  whose  end  is  to  transform  the  aliment  (which 
is  always  animal  or  vegetable  matter)  into  an  opaque  milky 
fluid  called  chyle,  capable  of  being  absorbed  by  particular 
vessels,  which  pour  it  more  slowly  into  the  circulatory  cur- 
rent; where,  on  mingling  with  the  venous  blood,  by  the 
influence  of  respiration,  it  becomes  at  length  arterial  blood. 
This  function  may  be  divided  into  seven  acts : 

The  taking  of  Aliment. 
In  man,  by  the  hands  and  mouth 

Mastication. 

The  division  of  the  food  by  means  of  small  and  very  hard 
bodies  (the  teeth),  of  which  some  (the  incisors)  cut,  some  (the 
canine)  tear,  and  others  (the  molars)  grind.  The  teeth  are 
formed  of  a  bony  substance,  covered  with  enamel,  and  having 
within  them  a  cavity  containing  a  vein,  artery,  nerve  and 
pulpy  matter. 

Insalivation. 

A  liquid  called  saliva  is  imbibed  by  and  softens  the  divided 
food.  The  salivary  glands  are  the  parotid,  the  submaxillary, 
and  the  sublingual,  of  each  a  pair. 

Deglutition. 

The  food  reduced  to  a  soft  mass  crosses  the  isthmus  of  the 
fauces,  reaches  the  pharynx,  passes  upon  the  glottis,  which  is 
covered  by  the  epiglottis,  arrives  in  the  oesophagus  and  de- 
scends into  the  stomach. 

Chymification. 

The  action  of  the  gastric  juice,  and  the  contractions  of  the 
stomach,  convert  the  food  into  a  grayish  pulp  called  chyme, 
and  propel  it  into  the  small  intestines. 

Chylification. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  bile  and  pancreatic  juice  the 
chyme  is  now  in  part  converted  into  an  opaque  milky  liquid 
called  chyle.  The  organs  here  are  the  intestines,  the  liver 
and  the  pancreas.  The  small  intestines  comprehend  the  du- 
odenum, the  jejunum  and  the  ileum  ;  the  large  intestine  em- 
braces the  ccecum,  the  colon  and  the  rectum. 


• 


PHYSIOLOGY.  13 

•Absorption  of  the  Chyle,. 

The  chyle  being  absorbed  from  the  internal  surface  of  the 
small  intestines  by  the  lacteals,  is  carried  into  the  receptacu- 
lum  chyli,  and  thence  by  the  thoracic  duct  into  the  left  sub- 
clavian  vein,  which  itself  opens  into  the  upper  vena  cava. 
Here  the  organs  are  the  lacteals,  the  receptaculum  chyli,  and 
the  thoracic  duct. 

FUNCTIONS  OF  RELATION. 

The  animal  places  itself  in  relation  with  exterior  objects 
by  means  of  two  grand  apparatus — the  apparatus  of  sensations 
and  the  apparatus  of  movements.  The  first  of  these  regards 
the  faculty  termed  sensation,  the  second  the  faculty  called 
locomotion. 

THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 

Is  formed  of  a  peculiar  substance  soft  and  pulpy,  nearly 
fluid  in  the  early  period  of  life,  and  acquiring  more  consis- 
tence as  the  animal  is  developed.  This  substance,  either 
gray  or  white,  constitutes  masses  more  or  less  considerable, 
or  cords  more  or  less  ramified. 

The  Nervo-Cerebral  System, 

Or  that  of  animal  life,  (PI.  3,  fig.  B)  includes  the  encepha- 
lum  and  the  nerves. 

The  Encepiialum.    (PI.  2,  fig.  A.) 

Under  the  head  of  encephalum  we  speak  of  the  cerebrum 
(n),  the  cerebellum  (r),  and  the  medulla  oblongata  (m,  m,  m). 

The  Cerebrum 

Is  a  large  pulpy  ovoid  organ,  with  the  thickest  extremity 
behind.  It  is  composed  of  two  substances ;  one  white  and 
internal,  the  other  gray  and  usually  external;  including  ca- 
vities termed  ventricles,  and  lodged  in  a  bony  case  called  the 
skull.  It  is  the  centre  of  perception.  It  is  divided  into  two 
hemispheres,  of  which  each  consists  of  an  anterior,  a  middle 
and  a  posterior  lobe. 

The  Cerebellum. 

A  nervous  mass  in  the  hinder  part  of  the  skull;  gray  with- 
out, white  within ;  presenting  outwardly  the  appearance  of 
layers  folding  one  over  the  other. 


•  ft .      .    '•  > 

14  PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  Spinal  Marrow. 

A  pulpy  cord,  white  without,  gray  within ;  lodged  in  the 
vertebral  canal ;  extending  from  the  base  of  the  brain  to  the 
lumbar  portion  of  the  vertebral  column,  where  it  is  divided 
into  a  great  number  of  filaments  called  the  cauda  equina,  from 
its  fancied  resemblance  to  a  horse's  tail. 

The  Nerves. 

White  cords  extending  from  the  base  of  the  brain  and  from 
the  spinal  marrow  to  the  muscles,  and  to  the  surface  of  the 
general  coverings  of  the  body,  to  form  the  organs  of  sense. 
(PL  2,  fig.  A,  and  PL  3,  fig.  B.) 

The  Sense  of  Touch. 

Of  this  the  seat  is  the  skin.  The  skin  is  composed  of  the 
epidermis  (PL  1,  fig.  1,  b,  and  PL  2,  fig.  2,  e),  the  nervous 
and  colouring  tissue  (PL  1,  fig.  1,  a,  and  PL  2,  fig.  2,  d),  the 
dermis  (PL  1,  fig.  1,  c,  and  PL  2,  fig.  2,  c),  and  the  piliferous 
(hair  producing)  bulbs,  and  is  supplied  with  blood  vessels 
(PL  2,  fig.  2,  a). 

The  Sense  of  Taste. 

Of  this  the  instrument  is  the  tongue,  or  rather  the  mucous 
membrane  covering  the  tongue. 

The  Sense  of  Smell.     (PI.  2,  fig.  3.) 

The  apparatus  of  smell  is  composed  of  the  olfactory  nerve 
and  pituitary  membrane  covering  the  nasal  fossce,  including 
the  spongy  bones,  the  partition  of  the  nose  (vomer)  and  car- 
tilages with  the  sinuses  (fig.  3,  a).  This  sense  is  excited  by 
the  action  of  odours  upon  this  apparatus. 

The  Sense  of  Hearing.     (PI.  2,  fig.  4.) 

This  apparatus  is  composed  of  the  external  ear,  including 
the  pinna  or  pavilion  (a,  b,  d)  and  the  external  auditory  canal 
(c) ;  the  middle  ear  which  includes  the  cavity  of  the  tympa- 
num (h)  separated  from  the  external  ear  by  the  membrane  of 
the  tympanum  (g);  the  chain  of  small  bones,  viz.,  the  stapes, 
the  orbicular  e,  the  incus  and  the  malleus ;  the  muscles  which 
move  these  bones;  and  the  eustachian  tube  (k);  the  internal 
ear,  embracing  the  vestibule,  where  we  find  the  oval  window, 
fenestra  ovalis,  the  opening  of  the  semicircular  canals  (1),  anr! 
the  opening  of  the  cochka\  the  semicircular  canals  (m);  the 


PHYSIOLOGY.  15 

cochlea  (p ) ;  and  the  auditory  nerve  (o).  This  subject  embraces 
the  theory  of  sound,  including  the  nature  of  sound  and  its  mode 
of  transmission,  and  the  mechanism  of  hearing  or  the  transmis- 
sion of  sound  through  the  different  portions  of  the  ear. 

The  Sense  cf  Sight. 

Under  this  head  are  comprised  the  apparatus  for  its  protec- 
tion (PL  3,  fig.  5),  embracing  the  brows,  the  orbit,  the  eyes, 
the  eyelashes,  the  lachrymal gland '(k),  the  lachrymal  points,  the 
lachrymal  ducts,  and  the  nasal  duct — the  apparatus  of  motion, 
consisting  of  eight  muscles,  viz.,  those  which  move  the  lids  (the 
orUculare  and  levator  of  the  upper  lid],  and  those  which  move 
the  ball,  the  great  oblique  (1),  the  small  oblique  (g),  the  four 
straight  muscles  (f,  i  and  d) — the  globe  of  the  eye  (fig.  6), 
including  the  conjunctiva  (b),  the  sclerotic  membrane  (s),  the 
choroid  membrane  (ch),  the  retina  (r),  the  iris  (i),  the  pupil 
(p),  the  cornea  (c  and  fig.  5,  a),  the  aqueous  humour,  the  crys- 
talline humour  (ca),  the  vitreous  humour  (o),  and  the  optic 
nerve  (n  and  fig.  5,  c) — and  finally  it  includes  the  subject  of 
light,  embracing  its  nature,  direction,  reflection,  refraction  (fig, 
7,  8  and  9)  and  decomposition,  together  with  the  mechanism 
of  vision,  or  the  progress  of  the  luminous  rays  into  the  eye 
(fig.  10). 

The  Nervous  System  of  Organic  Life, 

Or  the  great  sympathetic,  is  composed  of  ganglions,  united 
among  themselves  by  nervous  cords,  and  forming  a  double 
chain  on  both  sides  of  the  vertebral  column,  extending  from 
the  head  to  the  pelvis. 

This  nervous  system  presides  over  the  organs  of  involun- 
tary motion,  such  as  the  heart,  the  stomach  and  the  intestines. 


LOCOMOTION. 


Animals  are  not  only  capable  of  receiving  impressions 
from  external  objects ;  they  can  likewise  avoid  or  approach 
these  objects  at  will.  This  faculty  is  termed  the  faculty  of 
locomotion.  It  is  effected  by  means  of  two  apparatus,  one 
active  (the  muscular  apparatus),  the  other  passive  (the  bony 
apparatus).  There  is  another  faculty  besides  that  of  sensa- 
tion and  of  locomotion,  which  completes  the  life  of  relation ; 
it  is  the  power  enjoyed  by  a  great  number  of  animals  of 


16  PHYSIOLOGY. 

making  known  their  ideas  among  themselves  by  articulate 
sounds  or  by  cries. 

This  faculty  is  called  the  voice,  and  its  apparatus  the  vocal 
apparatus,  or 

Larynx. 

The  larynx  is  attached  above  to  a  bone  called  the  os  hyoides 
and  below  to  the  trachea.  Its  sides  are  formed  by  five  carti- 
lages, and  supplied  with  muscles  by  which  a  limited  degree 
of  motion  is  effected  :  its  superior  opening  is  called  the  glottis , 
over  which  is  a  fibro-cartilagmous  substance  named  epiglottis 
placed  at  the  base  of  the  tongue. 

The  Muscular  Apparatus. 

"  Muscle"  is  the  term  applied  to  certain  fleshy  organs 
composed  of  fibres  of  extreme  tenuity,  which  are  straight  and 
arranged  in  a  parallel  manner  among  themselves. 

These  organs  are  endowed  with  contractibility ;  that  is  to 
say,  with  the  power  of  shortening  and  extending  themselves 
alternately.  In  the  motions  of  contraction  the  fibres  fold  up 
in  a  zigzag  form,  and  the  muscle  becomes  hard  and  swollen. 
The  power  of  the  muscles  does  not  act  directly  on  the  bones, 
but  through  the  agency  of  certain  whitish,  fibrous  prolon- 
gations, denominated  when  thick,  tendons,  and  when  spread 
out,  aponeuroses. 

Muscular  contractions  operate,  some  under  the  influence 
of  the  will  (and  in  this  case  the  muscles  receive  nerves  from 
the  cerebro-spinal  system) ;  others  again  are  produced  without 
any  agency  on  the  part  of  this  faculty,  and  in  this  case  the 
muscles  receive  their  nerves  from  the  great  sympathetic ; 
others,  finally,  are  produced  by  the  united  influence  of  both 
the  nervous  systems. 

•mP  The  Bony  Apparatus.     (The  Skeleton.) 

Skeleton  is  the  name  applied  to  the  whole  collection  of 
bones  in  the  superior  animals.  Its  use  is  to  afford  a  base  of 
support  to  the  soft  parts,  and  to  furnish  the  muscular  powers 
with  resisting  levers,  which  give  energy,  extent  and  precision 
to  the  motions.  The  bones  are  the  hardest  portions  of 
the  bodies  of  animals.  Bones  are  formed  of  two  principal 
substances;  the  one  an  animal  substance  (gelatine),  inter- 


PHYSIOLOGY.  17 

mixed  with  an  earthy  matter  (phosphate  of  lime).  Their 
structure  is  varied,  being,  in  the  long  bones,  compact  in  the 
middle,  with  a  central  cavity,  and  the  extremities  spongy ; 
while  in  the  flat  bones  it  is  lamellated  on  the  external  sur- 
face, but  the  internal  substance  is  cellular.  The  bones  are 
divided,  according  to  their  form,  into  long,  flat  and  thick. 
The  first  are  found  in  the  limbs,  the  second  about  cavities, 
the  third  wherever  mobility  and  solidity  are  to  be  united. 

The  bones  are  connected  among  themselves  by  approxi- 
mation, without  any  intervening  substance  forming  sutures, 
by  cartilaginous  t  substance,  by  tendinous  bands  (ligaments), 
in  the  movable  articulations  enclosing  a  cavity  in  the  form  of 
a  sac :  these  are  termed  capsular  ligaments. 

The  place  of  union  in  bones  is  called  articulation ;  of  this 
there  are  two  kinds,  movable  and  immovable ;  upon  the  sur- 
faces of  bones  articulated  in  the  former  manner  certain  re- 
sisting substances  are  found  resembling  a  kind  of  animal 
pasteboard;  these  are  denominated  cartilages.  A  liquid 
called  synovia  moistens  them  and  facilitates  their  move- 
ments. 

The  Head 

Comprehends  the  cranium  and  face.  The  cranium  or 
skull  consists  of  eight  bones,  which  form  a  cavity  for  con- 
taining the  brain.  These  bones,  which  are  flat,  are  the 
frontal  before ;  the  occipital  behind  and  below ;  the  parietal 
at  the  sides  and  above  ;  the  temporal  at  the  sides  and  -below ; 
the  sphenoid  before  and  below  ;  and  the  ethemoid  in  the  ante- 
rior part  of  the  base  of  the  cranium.  The  face  consists  of 
the  upper  and  lower  maxillce  or  jaws  ;  the  upper  jaw  contains 
six  pair  of  bones,  and  one  single  bone,  and  sixteen  teeth. 
These  are  the  two  superior  maxillary,  the  two  nasal,  the  two 
ossa  ungues,  the  two  molar,  the  two  palate,  the  two  spongy 
bones,  and  the  vomer,  which  last  forms  the  partition  of  the 
nose. 

The  lower  jaw  has  but  one  bone  besides  the  teeth ;  it  is 
the  inferior  maxillary  bone. 

The  Trunk 
Consists  of  the  spine,  the  thorax  and  the  pelvis. 


18  PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  Spine 

Is  composed  of  the  true  and  false  vertebra.  The  true  ver- 
tebra comprise  three  classes.  First,  the  cervical,  which  are 
the  seven  uppermost  vertebra  belonging  to  the  neck;  the 
first  is  called  the  atlas,  the  second  the  dentata.  Second  class, 
the  dorsal  or  those  of  the  back,  which  are  twelve  in  number. 
And  the  third,  the  lumbar,  or  those  of  the  loins,  five  in 
number. 

The  Thorax 

Is  composed  of  the  dor  sal  vertebra,  twelve  pair  of  ribs,  with 
their  cartilages,  and  the  sternum. 

The  Pelvis 

Is  composed  of  the  false  vertebra  (the  sacrum  and  coccy- 
gis)  behind,  and  the  two  ossa  innominata  at  the  side  and  in 
front. 

The  Members 

Comprise  the  two  extremities ;  the  superior  and  inferior 
extremity. 

The  Superior  Extremities, 

Each,  consist  of  the  shoulder,  the  arm,  the  fore-arm  and 
hand. 

The  Shoulder 

Is  composed  of  two  bones ;  the  clavicle  or  collar  bone,  a 
long  bone,  in  front ;  the  scapula  or  shoulder  blade,  a  flat  bone 
behind. 

The  rfrm 
Has  one  long  bone,  the  humerus. 

The  Fore  Arm 
Has  two  long  bones,  the  radius  and  ulna. 

The  Hand 

Comprehends  the  whole  structure  from  the  end  of  the  fore 
arm  to  the  points  of  the  fingers.  It  consists  of  the  carpus  or 
wrist,  the  metacarpus  or  parts  near  the  wrist,  and  the  fingers 
including  the  thumb. 

The  Carpus 
Is  composed  of  eight  small  bones  arranged  in  two  rows. 


PHYSIOLOGY.  19 

The  Metacarpus 
Of  four  bones  which  sustain  the  fingers. 

The  Fingers, 

Each,  of  three  bones,  called  phalanges. 

The  Inferior  Extremities, 

Each,  consist  of  the  thigh,  leg  and  foot. 

The  Thigh 
Has  one  long  bone,  the  femur. 

The  Leg 

Has  two  long  bones,  the  tibia  and  fibula,  with  a  thick  bone, 
the  patella,  which  is  connected  with  it  and  the  thigh,  forming 
the  anterior  part  of  the  knee  joint. 

The  Foot 
Is  divided  into  the  tarsus,  metatarsus  and  toes. 

The  Tarsus 
Consists  of  seven  spongy  bones. 

The  Metatarsus, 
Of  five  bones  sustaining  the  toes. 

The  Toes, 

Of  three  bones  each ;  except  the  great  toe,  which  has  but 
two  bones. 


20 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  HUMAN  RACE. 


Distribution  of  the  Human  Races  on  the  Face  of  the  Globe, 
according  to  the  Animal  Kingdom  of  Cuvier. 

THE  order  of  the  BIMANA,  easily  distinguished  by  the  ex- 
istence of  hands  at  the  anterior  extremities  only,  and  by  the 
presence  of  three  kinds  of  teeth,  is  composed  of  but  one  genus, 
embracing  but  one  species.  Man  is  the  only  mammiferous 
animal  truly  biped.  His  feet,  likewise,  afford  a  base  of  sup- 
port larger  than  in  any  other  animal.  The  great  width  of 
the  pelvis,  by  separating  the  thighs  and  feet,  gives  the  body 
a  pyramidal  form  very  favourable  to  equilibrium.  The  head 
is  also  naturally  in  equilibrium  in  the  vertical  position ;  but 
even  if  he  wished,  man  could  not  walk  on  all  fours.  The 
foot  is  too  short  and  almost  inflexible,  and  the  thigh  being 
too  long  would  bring  the  knee  towards  the  ground.  The 
fore  limbs,  being  too  wide  apart,  and  too  weak,  and  shorter 
than  the  hinder  ones,  would  be  obliged  to  support  the  enor- 
mous weight  of  the  head  and  chest,  and  even  part  of  that  of 
the  pelvis.  The  want  of  a  cervical  ligament  and  the  little 
subdivision  among  the  arteries  which  lead  to  the  brain  would 
subject  him  to  frequent  apoplexies.  Moreover  in  this  posi- 
tion he  would  lose  that  activity  and  delicacy  of  touch  which 
is  so  valuable — touch  the  most  exact  instrument  which  intel- 
ligence employs.  His  eyes  would  be  continually  turned 
towards  the  earth,  and  the  nostrils  to  the  rear.  On  the  con- 
trary, in  the  biped  position  man  resumes  all  his  advantages. 
Nevertheless,  if  we  examine  him  as  an  isolated  being  and 
simply  in  a  physical  view,  he  will  appear  to  us  the  most 
unfortunate  of  animals.  He  has  neither  offensive  nor  defen- 
sive weapon ;  his  naked  skin  is  exposed  as  well  to  the  burn- 
ing heat  of  the  sun  as  to  the  rigorous  cold  of  winter.  What 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  HUMAN  RACE.  21 

is  his  strength  before  that  of  the  lion  ?  or  the  rapidity  of  his 
pace  compared  with  that  of  the  horse  ?  Has  he  the  night  of 
the  bird  ?  an  equal  power  of  swimming  with  the  fish  ?  the 
dog's  sense  of  smell  ?  the  piercing  eye  of  the  eagle  ?  or  the 
hearing  of  the  hare  ?  What  is  his  size  beside  that  of  the 
elephant  ?  To  escape  his  enemies  he  has  not  even  the  imbri- 
cated shells  of  the  pangolin,  nor  the  buckler  of  the  armadillo. 
But,  if  we  consider  his  admirable  intelligence,  we  behold 
him  subjecting  to  his  dominion  or  employing  in  his  service 
the  rapidity  of  the  horse,  the  strength  of  the  elephant,  the 
smell  of  the  dog,  the  piercing  eye  of  the  eagle.  By  means 
of  this  intelligence  he  alone,  of  all  other  beings,  has  been 
enabled  to  form  for  himself  a  language.  Through  this, 
fathers  transmit  to  their  children  their  experience,  their 
ideas ;  and  this  heritage,  in  passing  from  generation  to  gene- 
ration, always  increased  in  its  progress  from  the  preceding 
generation,  becomes  at  length  a  treasure  which  the  memory 
is  no  longer  capable  of  preserving.  This  accumulation  upon 
accumulation  of  facts  gave  birth  to  writing  and  then  again  to 
printing,  the  province  of  both  which  is,  to  render  language 
perceptible  by  the  eye  in  all  places  and  at  all  times. 

CAUCASIAN  VARIETY. 

Facial  angle  from  eighty-six  to  ninety  degrees.  Face  oval; 
forehead  prominent ;  eyes  horizontal ;  the  balls  but  slightly 
projecting ;  colour  of  the  skin  white  or  at  least  whitish ;  hair 
varying  from  black  to  a  shade  nearly  white.  This  variety 
has  formed  all  the  most  civilized  people  of  the  earth.  It  oc- 
cupies Europe  (with  the  exception  of  the  polar  regions), 
western  Asia  and  the  northern  part  of  Africa.  It  is  believed 
to  have  had  its  origin  in  the  groups  of  the  Caucasus.  Three 
branches. 

THE  GERMANIC-INDO-PELA8GIAN  BRANCH. 

Germans. 

Facial  angle  about  ninety  degrees.  The  vertex  rounded  ; 
face  nobly  oval ;  forehead  open ;  nose  straight  or  nearly  so  ; 
eyebrows  more  or  less  arched,  reigning  over  large  eyes.  Lips 
agreeably  coloured  and  never  too  thick.  Ears  small  and 
lying  close  to  the  head.  Beard  well  furnished.  Hair 


22  VARIETIES  OF  THE  HUMAN  RACE. 

smooth,  generally  fine,  often  curly,  varying  from  black  to 
nearly  white.     [Western  part  of  Europe.] 

Pelasgians. 

Oval  of  the  face  a  little  more  elongated  than  in  the  pre- 
ceding. Nose  perfectly  straight  and  extending  from  the 
forehead  without  any  depression  to  the  height  of  the  eyes, 
which  are  exceedingly  large.  Hair  fine,  brown  or  chestnut, 
rarely  light,  remarkable  for  its  excessive  length.  Complexion 
white,  but  a  little  embrowned.  Stature  about  five  feet  and 
ten  inches.  [Eastern  and  meridional  parts  of  Europe.] 

Hindoos. 

Complexion  of  a  deep  yellow,  inclining  to  bronze.  Nose 
somewhat  agreeably  rounded,  without  ever  being  flat ;  lips 
thin ;  eyes  round,  and  tolerably  large,  with  the  iris  black ; 
hair  long,  flat  and  always  very  black  and  glossy ;  beard  not 
well  furnished ;  disposition  mild,  simple,  docile,  industrious, 
neither  lethargic  nor  active ;  sobriety  remarkable.  Agricul- 
tural or  sedentary,  they  leave  the  commerce  of  their  rich 
country  to  Europeans  or  to  Arabs. 

THE  ARABIAN  BRANCH. 

Face  oval,  and  much  elongated  at  the  two  extremities ; 
chin  pointed ;  forehead  large  and  prolonged  to  an  elevated 
summit.  This  character  of  the  head  is  perhaps  the  cause  of 
that  religious  enthusiasm  which  prevails  among  the  people 
of  this  branch.  Nose  well  defined,  thin,  pointed  and  aqui- 
line ;  eyes  black,  large,  and  surmounted  with  arched  and  thick 
eyebrows ;  lips  thin ;  mouth  agreeable ;  hair  black,  very  long, 
never  curling ;  skin  soft,  fine,  smooth  and  tawny — often  deeply 
so.  The  Arabs  have  quick  intellect,  an  aptitude  for  science, 
cunning  and  the  virtue  of  hospitality.  On  the  other  hand 
they  are  avaricious  and  great  robbers.  Their  language  is 
emphatic  and  full  of  poetic  imagery. 


THE  SCYTHIAN  BRANCH. 


Upper  part  of  the  face  excessively  wide  and  flattened ; 
eyes  very  small,  deep  set,  so  far  apart  that  there  is  often  more 
than  the  breadth  of  the  hand  between  them,  and  surmounted 
by  large  rough  eyebrows;  nose  very  broad  and  flat;  eyeballs 
excessively  prominent ;  chin  pointed  ;  beard  tolerably  furn- 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  HUMAN  RACE.  23 

ished,  especially  about  the  lip,  and  brown  approaching  to  red ; 
Hair  flat,  usually  black ;  body  robust  and  muscular ;  legs 
short ;  knees  turning  outwards ;  feet  inwards.  Wanderers, 
indomitable  hunters,  shepherds,  but  never  agriculturists. 
Having  no  local  attachments,  they  emigrate  in  innumerable 
bands,  and,  at  different  epochs,  spread  themselves  like  a  flood 
to  the  north,  south  or  west. 

MONGOLIAN  VARIETY. 

Face  flat;  forehead  square  and  oblique;  eyeballs  project- 
ing ;  eyes  narrow  and  oblique ;  chin  slightly  projecting ; 
beard  thin;  hair  straight  and  black ;  skin  more  or  less  yel- 
low or  olive ;  language  monosyllabic.  [Asia  beyond  the 
Ganges.] 

Chinese. 

Face  round  and  widened  in  the  middle ;  cheek  bones  pro- 
jecting ;  eyes  almond  shape  when  open,  with  the  external 
angle  very  high ;  lids  large  and  nearly  destitute  of  lashes  ; 
brows  very  thin  and  black;  nose  well  separated  from  the 
forehead  by  a  deep  depression,  rounded,  slightly  flattened, 
with  the  nostrils  somewhat  expanded ;  mouth  large,  with 
vertical  teeth ;  lips  thick  and  of  a  livid  red ;  chin  small  and 
unfurnished  with  beard;  hair  smooth,  flat,  never  curling,  of 
moderate  length,  thick  and  always  black;  skin  oily,  and 
sometimes  of  a  deep  brown.  Mild,  civil,  flatterers,  cringing, 
brokers  and  greedy  of  gain.  They  are  essentially  rice  eaters. 

Malays. 

Complexion  maroon  colour,  approaching  to  brick-red  or 
yellow;  eyes  less  elevated  towards  the  temples;  eye-balls 
less  projecting  than  among  the  Chinese.  [The  coast  of  Indo- 
China,  all  the  Asiatic  Archipelago  and  the  ocean  as  far  as 
Madagascar.] 

Hyperborean  Regions  of  the  two  Continents. 

Head  round  and  of  huge  dimensions  ;  face  wide,  short  and 
flat  in  front ;  nose  flattened  ;  eye-lids  drawn  up  towards  the 
temples;  mouth  large;  teeth  vertical;  hair  smooth,  black, 
naturally  greasy  and  hard;  beard  thin;  ordinary  height 
about  five  feet;  skin  tawny  and  even  entirely  black,  ac- 


24  VARIETIES  OF  THE  HUMAN  RACE. 

cording  to  the  countries  in  which  they  dwell.  They  have 
domesticated  the  reindeer  as  well  as  the  dog.  They  live 
upon  the  flesh  of  these  animals,  upon  the  blubber  of  whales, 
and  upon  a  kind  of  bread  made  of  bones,  lichens  and  the 
pounded  bark  of  the  birch  tree. 

ETHIOPIAN  VARIETY. 

Skull  compressed ;  nose  flattened ;  muzzle  projecting ; 
facial  angle  acute ;  lips  thick ;  hair  more  or  less  frizzled ; 
skin  more  or  less  black. 

Negroes. 

Hair  woolly ;  skull  compressed,  and  forehead  depressed ; 
nose  flat ;  incisive  teeth  projecting ;  skin  black.  [Africa 
from  the  Senegal  and  the  Niger  to  beyond  the  southern  tro- 
pic.] 

^  »•'»,'»•"  :.%    A*  i ..'-" .'''•- : ,-*»•_"'".- V- 1*/ •  i  '-'-v 

Negroes  of  Mozambique. 

Hair  woolly;  skin  black;  skull  less  compressed  than  among 
the  Ethiopians;  forehead  almost  as  projecting  as  among  Eu- 
ropeans; incisive  teeth  vertical;  nose  but  little  flattened. 
[Eastern  side  of  Africa  upon  the  Indian  ocean.] 

Papons. 

Hair  very  thick,  and  moderately  woolly ;  forehead  high ; 
nose  a  little  flattened;  face  tolerably  regular.  [Coast  of  New 
Guinea.] 

•fllfourous. 

Hair  smooth  and  black ;  beard  thin ;  skin  black ;  limbs 
slender,  and  of  a  length  disproportioned  to  the  body ;  nose 
much  widened ;  forehead  depressed  and  compressed.  [Inte- 
rior of  New  Guinea  and  of  New  Holland.] 

Hottentots. 

Facial  angle  seventy-five  degrees  ;  hair  black  or  brownish, 
very  short  and  woolly ;  teeth  oblique  and  bent ;  the  olecra- 
nean  cavity  of  the  shoulder  having  a  hole  in  it ;  skin  more 
or  less  yellow,  never  black;  nose  immoderately  large ;  top 
of  the  head  flattened;  and  of  a  disgusting  filthiness.  Unso- 
cial, taciturn  and  fearful,  they  live  in  caverns,  and  hardly 
know  the  use  of  fire. 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  HUMAN  RACE.  25 

..•V  ' 

PEOPLE  OF  AMERICA  WHO  CANNOT  BE  REFERRED  TO  ANY  VARIETY. 

North  Americans. 

Head  elongated  ;  nose  long,  projecting  and  very  aquiline ; 
forehead  compressed  and  flattened ;  complexion  a  copper  red 
in  all  climates ;  hair  black ;  beard  thin ;  moral  character  en- 
ergetic. [All  North  America ;  all  the  plains  and  declivities 
of  the  Cordilleras  from  Chili  to  Cumana  and  the  Caribbean 
Archipelago,  inclusively.] 

South  Americans. 

Head  generally  spherical ;  forehead  wide  but  depressed,  as 
among  the  Mongolians ;  eyebrows  elevated  towards  the  tem- 
ples; eye-balls  projecting;  nose  flattened  and  depressed  at 
the  root ;  hair  long,  coarse  and  straight ;  skin  neither  yellow, 
nor  black,  nor  copper ;  lips  very  thick ;  intellect  generally 
obtuse ;  moral  character  altogether  brutal. 


26 


CLASSIFICATION. 


GENERAL  distribution  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  into  Four 
Great  Divisions. 

First   Great  Division.     Animalia    Vertebrata — Vertebrated 

Animals. 

The  interior  skeleton  forming  the  solid  frame-work  of  the 
body.  Nervous  system  composed,  besides  the  ganglions  and 
the  nerves,  of  a  brain  and  a  spinal  marrow  situated  above  the 
digestive  tube  and  inclosed  in  the  cavity  of  the  cranium  and 
the  vertebral  canal.  Blood  red ;  heart  muscular,  with  at 
least  two  cavities.  Respiration  generally  aerial  and  pulmo- 
nary ;  sometimes  aquatic,  being  effected  by  means  of  bran- 
chiae. Mouth  with  two  jaws  placed  one  above  or  at  least 
before  the  other.  Organs  of  sense  to  the  number  of  five,  and 
distinct ;  four  are  lodged  in  the  cavities  of  the  head.  Form 
of  the  body  symmetrical;  never  more  than  two  pairs  of 
limbs. 

Subdivision  of  the  Vertebrata  into  Four  Classes. 

FIRST  CLASS.       MAMMALIA. 

Viviparous;  having  mammas  and  hair;  blood  warm;  cir- 
culation double  and  complete;  heart  with  four  cavities;  res- 
piration pulmonary,  and  simple. 

SECOND  CLASS.       BIRDS. 

Oviparous  ;  having  feathers  ;  blood  warm ;  circulation 
double  and  complete ;  heart  with  four  cavities ;  respiration 
pulmonary,  and  double. 

THIRD  CLASS.       REPTILES. 

Oviparous;   skin  naked  or  furnished  with  scales;   blood 


CLASSIFICATION.  27 

cold;  circulation  double  and  incomplete;  heart  with  three 
cavities ;  respiration  pulmonary,  and  simple. 

FOURTH  CLASS.       FISH. 

Oviparous;  skin  naked  or  furnished  with  scales;  blood 
cold ;  circulation  double  and  complete ;  heart  with  two  cavi- 
ties ;  respiration  aquatic,  by  branchise. 

Second  Great  Division.    Animalia  Mollusca — Molluscous  or 

Soft  Animals. 

Neither  interior  nor  exterior  skeleton ;  body  enveloped  in 
a  soft  and  contractile  skin  to  which  the  muscles  are  attached. 
This  skin,  in  many  species,  encrusts  itself  with  stony  matter 
forming  a  kind  of  plate  denominated  shell.  Nervous  system 
composed  of  many  scattered  masses,  joined  by  nervous  threads, 
the  chief  of  which  is  placed  upon  the  oesophagus,  and  have 
the  name  of  brain.  No  special  organ  for  smell,  very  seldom 
for  hearing,  and  often  none  for  sight.  Circulation  complete; 
blood  white ;  generally  a  bluish  white.  Respiration  effected 
sometimes  in  a  kind  of  pulmonary  cavities ;  more  often  by 
branchise.  Seldom  members  for  locomotion. 

Division  of  Mollusca  into  Three  Classes. 

FIRST  CLASS.       CEPHALOPODA. 

Head  very  distinct,  surmounted  with  fleshy  arms,  flexible 
in  every  direction,  and  serving  either  for  progress  or  for  the 
seizure  of  an  object;  the  rest  of  the  body  inclosed  in  a 
rounded  sack.  Circulation  double;  respiration  by  branchiae. 

SECOND  CLASS.   GASTEROPODA. 

A  fleshy  disk,  upon  which  they  crawl,  is  placed  under  the 
abdomen.  Head  more  or  less  distinct,  provided  with  one  or 
more  pairs  of  tentacula  or  feelers ;  respiration  pulmonary  or 
branchial. 

THIRD  CLASS.       ACEPHALA. 

No  distinct  head  nor  feelers ;  mouth  concealed  with  the 
body  in  a  mantle  which  is  divided  into  two  lobes. 


28  CLASSIFICATION. 

Third   Great  Division.      Animalia  Articulata — Articulated 

Animals. 

The  interior  skeleton  replaced  by  an  external  one  formed 
of  a  skin  more  or  less  modified  in  its  nature  and  consistence, 
and  composed  of  a  series  of  rings,  movable  one  upon  another. 
Nervous  system  consisting  in  two  long  cords  extending  through 
the  length  of  the  abdomen,  and  dilated  at  certain  distances  into 
knots  or  ganglions.  The  first  of  the  knots  placed  above  the 
cesphagus,  and  called  brain,  communicates  by  threads,  which 
form  a  collar  to  the  oesophagus,  with  those  placed  beneath  the 
abdomen;  blood  white  except  in  the  Annulata.  There  is  a 
rapid  decline  in  the  circulation  from  the  first  animals  of  this 
division  to  the  last,  where  we  may  say  indeed  that  it  does  not 
exist  or  is  performed  by  simple  imbibition.  At  least  three 
pairs  of  limbs  when  they  exist  at  all. 

FIRST  CLASS.       ANNULATA. 

Blood  red  ;  circulation  complete  ;  body  covered  with  a  soft 
skin,  and  divided  into  numerous  rings  ;  respiration  by  bran- 
chiae ;  no  articulated  limbs  ;  no  metamorphoses. 

SECOND  CLASS,   CRUSTACEA. 

Colourless  blood  contained  in  two  kinds  of  vessels ;  skin 
encrusted  with  carbonate  and  phosphate  of  lime  ;  head  con- 
founded with  the  thorax ;  four  attennae  or  feelers ;  two  com- 
pound eyes  ;  foot  jaws ;  always  at  least  six  articulated  feet ; 
respiration  by  branchiae ;  no  metamorphoses. 

THIRD  CLASS.       ARACHNIDES. 

Blood  colourless ;  two  systems  of  vessels  in  those  which 
respire  by  lungs  ;  circulation  as  in  insects  in  all  which  res- 
pire by  tracheae;  head  confounded  with  the  thorax;  eyes 
simple ;  more  than  three  pairs  of  limbs ;  no  metamorphoses. 

FOURTH  CLASS.       INSECTS. 

Blood  colourless ;  distributing  itself  to  the  different  parts 
of  the  body  by  simple  imbibition;  body  presenting  three 
parts — head,  thorax  and  abdomen ;  generally  three  pairs  of 
limbs  ;  respiration  by  tracheae  ;  metamorphoses  more  or  less 
complete. 


CLASSIFICATION.  29 

Fourth  Great  Division.    Animalia  Radiata — Radiated  Ani- 
mals or  Zoophytes. 

A  symmetry  in  the  disposition  of  the  organs  of  motion  and 
of  the  senses,  which  are  placed  in  rays  around  a  centre  ;  op- 
posite faces  of  the  body  similar ;  no  distinct  nervous  system, 
nor  organs  of  sense;  respiratory  organs  situated  upon  the 
surface  of  the  body ;  circulation  hardly  discoverable  in  the 
greater  number ;  a  sac  without  issue  for  intestines. 

Division  of  Zoophytes  into  Four  Classes. 

FIRST  CLASS.       ECHINODERMATA. 

Body  invested  with  a  well  formed  skin ;  having  a  sort  of 
skeleton  armed  with  points  or  movable  spines ;  an  internal 
cavity  and  a  sort  of  vascular  system,  with  distinct  organs  of 
respiration. 

SECOND  CLASS.       ENTOZOA  OR  INTESTINAL  WORMS. 

Body  in  general  elongated  ;  no  tracheae,  branchiae  nor  other 
respiratory  organ  ;  no  trace  of  true  circulation;  some  vestiges 
of  nerves. 

THIRD  CLASS.       POLYPI. 

A  small  gelatinous  body,  often  without  other  organ  than  a 
cavity ;  mouth  surrounded  with  tentaculse ;  propagation  of 
new  individuals  by  shoots  and  eggs. 

FOURTH  CLASS.       INFUSORIA. 

Little  microscopic  beings  swarming  in  stagnant  waters ; 
chiefly  gelatinous,  -and  without  viscera. 


30 


MAMMALIA. 


ORDER  II.     QUADRUMANA.* 

Resemblance  to  Man  greater  than  in  any  other  animals; 
hands  to  the  inferior  as  well  as  to  the  superior  extremities  ; 
the  three  kinds  of  teeth,  incisive,  canine  and  molar;  eyes 
directed  to  the  front,  or  at  least  obliquely  ;  mammae  upon  the 
breast;  each  hemisphere  of  the  brain  composed  of  three 
lobes,  of  which  the  posterior  covers  the  cerebellum ;  intestines 
like  those  of  man ;  climbing,  fructivorous  animals.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  family  having  the  toes  of  the  hind  feet  free 
and  opposable  to  the  others,  they  climb  trees  with  the  greatest 
facility,  while  it  is  only  with  pain  and  difficulty  they  can 
stand  or  walk  upright ;  their  foot  then  resting  on  its  outward 
edge  only,  and  their  narrow  pelvis  being  unfavourable  to  an 
equilibrium.  Three  families. 

FAMILY  I.     SIMIA,  LIN.     MONKEYS  PROPER. 

Four  vertical  incisive  teeth  in  each  jaw  ;  molars  with  blunt 
tubercles ;  the  nails  of  the  fingers  flattened,  and  all  of  the 
same  form,  with  the  exception  of  the  genus  Ouistitis ;  size 
diminutive  or  middling ;  skull  almost  always  rounded ;  muz- 
zle somewhat  prolonged ;  neck  short ;  body  slender ;  limbs 
slim  and  long ;  hair  close,  long  and  silky  ;  the  four  straight 
incisors  in  each  jaw,  and  the  flat  nails  on  all  the  extremities, 
are  characteristics  which  approximate  the  monkeys  more 
nearly  to  man  than  the  subsequent  families.  Two  tribes. 

TRIBE  I.     MONKEYS  OF  THE  OLD  CONTINENT. 

Five  molar  teeth  on  each  side  and  on  each  jaw ;  nostrils 
open  beneath  the  nose,  and  separated  by  a  narrow  partition ; 

*  Having  four  hands. 


MAMMALIA.  31 

almost  always  a  callus  on  the  seat  and  cheek  pouches;  tail 
never  prehensile  (clinging).     Six  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     PITHECUS,  Geoff.     Ourangs. 

No  tail,  nor  callosities,  nor  cheek-pouches.  Of  all  animals 
the  ourang  is  considered  as  approaching  most  nearly  to  man 
in  the  form  of  his  head,  height  of  forehead  and  volume  of 
brain ;  but  many  exaggerated  descriptions  of  this  resemblance 
have  arisen,  no  doubt,  from  the  fact  that  young  individuals 
only  were  seen.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  with 
age  the  likeness  decreases  as  the  muzzle  becomes  more  pro- 
minent. The  body  of  the  Ourang-Outang  is  covered  with 
coarse  red  hair,  the  face  bluish,  and  the  hinder  thumbs  very 
short  compared  with  the  toes.  [Cochin-China,  Malacca,  Bor- 
neo.] 

GENUS  II.     HILOBATES,  Illig.     Gibbons. 

A  callus  on  the  seat ;  arms  very  long ;  neither  tail  nor 
cheek  pouches.  [The  Indies  and  their  Archipelago.] 

GENUS  III.     CERCOPITHECUS,  Erxl.     Monkeys  Proper. 

Tail  long;  limbs  elongated ;  form  slender;  head  rounded; 
muzzle  moderately  projecting;  large  cheek-pouches;  callosi- 
ties ;  size  middling.  The  length  of  the  hinder  limbs  gives 
these  animals  great  facility  in  leaping.  They  abound  in  Af- 
rica, live  in  troops,  and  do  much  damage  to  gardens  and  fields 
under  cultivation.  They  are  easily  tamed. 

GENUS  IV.    SEMNOPITHECUS. 

Muzzle  as  in  the  Gibbons ;  length  of  the  limbs  dispropor- 
tionate ;  tail  very  long ;  callosities ;  no  cheek  pouches ;  the 
larynx  furnished  with  a  sac.  They  differ  from  the  long 
tailed  Monkeys  by  having  an  additional  small  tubercle  on 
the  last  of  the  inferior  molars.  [Eastern  part  of  Asia.] 

GENUS  V.    INUUS,  Cuv.    Magots. 

Cheek  pouches ;  callosities ;  a  simple  tubercle  supplying 
the  place  of  tail ;  completely  covered  with  a  light  brown  hair. 
"  Of  all  Monkeys  it  is  the  one  that  suffers  the  least  from  our 
climate,"  says  Cuvier.  He  is  originally  from  Barbary,  but 
is  said  to  have  become  naturalized  in  the  most  inaccessible 
parts  of  the  rock  of  Gibraltar. 


32  MAMMALIA. 

•  •*     '.' 

GENUS  VI.    CYNOCEPHALUS.* 

Teeth  very  strong ;  false  cheeks ;  callosities  ;  muzzle  elon- 
gated, and,  as  it  were,  cut  off  at  the  end  where  the  nostrils 
are  pierced,  which  causes  it  to  resemble  that  of  the  Dog ; 
large  size ;  brutal  and  ferocious  disposition.  Our  engraving 
represents  the  dog-faced  Baboon  of  Pennant,  or  Moco-Ape  of 
Buffon.  A  bluish  ash  colour ;  hairs  of  the  ruff,  and  especially 
those  of  the  sides  of  the  head,  very  long  ;  face  flesh  coloured ; 
of  a  horribly  vicious  instinct.  [Arabia  and  Ethiopia.] 

TRIBE  II.     MONKEYS  OF  THE  NEW  CONTINENT. 

Six  molar  teeth  on  each  side,  and  in  each  jaw ;  no  callosi- 
ties nor  false  cheeks ;  nostrils  in  the  side  of  the  nose ;  tail 
long,  frequently  prehensile — that  is,  the  extremity  is  capable 
of  seizing  a  body  with  much  force  by  twining  round  it.  Two 
sections. 

Section  /.     CebitSj  Erxl     Sapqjous. 
The  tail  prehensile. 

GENUS  MYCETES,  Illig.    Howling  Monkey. 

Head  pyramidal ;  face  oblique ;  lower  jaw  extremely  large ; 
the  hyoid  bone  has  a  swelling  or  bony  drum,  which  com- 
municates with  the  larynx,  and  gives  to  the  voice  of  these 
animals  an  enormous  volume  and  frightful  sound. 

Section  II.    Pithecia,  Desm.,  Illig.      Sakis. 
Tail  not  prehensile. 

FAMILY  II.    OUISTITIS. 

Incisive  teeth  to  the  number  of  four  in  each  jaw,  but  oblique 
and  bent,  especially  in  the  upper  jaw ;  twenty  molar  teeth ; 
no  callosities  nor  cheek  pouches ;  tail  bushy  and  not  pre- 
hensile ;  nails  compressed,  crooked  and  sharp  like  claws ; 
thumbs  of  the  forehands  movable,  but  placed  with  difficulty 
in  opposition  to  the  fingers,  from  which,  indeed,  they  are  so 
slightly  separated  that  it  is  with  hesitation  we  assign  to  them 
the  name  of  Quadrumana.  They  are  pretty  little  creatures, 
of  agreeable  forms  and  easily  tamed.  [South  America.] 

*  Dog-headed. 


MAMMALIA.  33 

FAMILY  III.     LEMUR,  LIN.     MAKIS. 

The  incisive  teeth  in  greater  number,  or  otherwise  directed, 
than  among  the  Monkeys ;  fore-thumbs  easily  opposed  to  the 
fingers ;  nails  flat,  except  those  of  the  first  or  two  first  hind 
fingers,  where  they  are  pointed  and  raised ;  nostrils  in  the 
end  of  the  snout  and  winding ;  their  fur  is  woolly,  and  their 
teeth  begin  to  exhibit  sharp  tubercles  catching  in  each  other 
as  in  the  Insectivora.  The  Lemur,  or  Maki,  properly  so 
called,  is  a  very  active  animal,  and,  from  its  pointed  head,  is 
sometimes  called  the  fox-nosed  Monkey.  This  species  is  very 
numerous,  and  only  met  with  in  the  island  of  Madagascar. 


ORDER  III.     CARNARIA.* 

Unguiculated  animals,  with  thumbs  not  opposable,  having 
the  three  kinds  of  teeth,  and  being  born  in  the  ordinary  man- 
ner ;  jaws  usually  short,  with  the  articulation  transversely 
directed,  and  hinge-like,  so  as  to  admit  of  no  lateral  move- 
ment ;  the  muscles  which  move  these  parts  are  extremely 
vigorous ;  shape,  acuteness  and  number  of  the  teeth  accord- 
ing to  the  aliment,  which  is  composed  more  or  less  exclu- 
sively of  prey ;  length  of  the  intestines  inconsiderable,  and 
in  relation  also  with  the  instinct,  whether  more  or  less  san- 
guinary, of  these  animals ;  sense  of  smell  more  fully  deve- 
loped than  any  other  sense.  A  numerous  order,  including 
many  curious  animals ;  consists  of  three  families,  of  which 
Plate  7  presents  only  the  two  first. 

.  FAMILY  I.     CHEIROPTERA. 

The  character  of  this  family  is  distinguished  by  a  kind  of 
wings  formed  by  a  fold  of  the  skin,  which  commences  at  the 
sides  of  the  neck  and  extends  between  the  fore  feet  and  toes, 
enabling  them  to  fly,  which,  to  give  the  necessary  rotation  of 
the  arm,  requires  them  to  be  furnished  with  complete  clavi- 

*  Flesh-eating. 


34  MAMMALIA. 

cles   and   large  scapulae;  four   canini;   incisors  varying  in 
number  ;  pectoral  mammse.     Four  tribes. 

TRIBE  I.     VESPERTILIO,  LIN.     BATS. 

Fingers  of  the  anterior  limbs  excessively  long,  and  forming, 
with  the  membranes  which  they  sustain,  wings  as  well  de- 
veloped as  in  Birds ;  pectoral  muscles  very  thick ;  thumb 
short  and  armed  with  a  crooked  nail,  which  these  animals 
use  in  suspending  themselves  or  in  creeping ;  hind  feet  weak 
and  divided  into  five  equal  fingers,  armed  with  trenchant 
claws ;  eyes  very  small ;  touch  very  delicate,  having  its  seat 
in  the  skin  of  the  ears  and  the  wings ;  nocturnal  animals, 
passing  the  winter  in  lethargy. 

Group  I.     Fructivorous  Bats. 
GENUS  PLEROPUS,  Briss. 

Molar  teeth  with  flat  crowns ;  the  second  finger  before 
armed  with  a  nail  like  the  thumb. 

Group  II.     True  or  Insectivorous  Bats. 

Molar  teeth  studded  with  conical  points,  fitting  into  each 
other  so  as  to  break  the  horny  shells  of  insects,  and  to  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  so  small  a  prey ;  no  nail  on  the  second 
finger.  Four  remarkable  kinds. 

GENUS  I.     VESPERTILIO,  Geoff,  and  Cuv. 

Ears  separated  and  of  moderate  size ;  nose  without  appen- 
dage ;  tail  comprised  in  the  membrane.  Common  Bat;  Sero- 
tine;  Pipistrell. 

GENUS  II.     MEGADERMA,  Geoff.     Oreillard. 

Ears  larger  than  the  head,  and  joined  to  each  other. 

GENUS  III.     RHINOLOPHUS,  Geoff,  and  Cuv. 

Nose  furnished  with  membranes  and  with  crests,  present- 
ing the  rude  figure  of  a  horse  shoe. 

GENUS  IV-     PHYLLOSTOMA,  Geoff,  and  Cuv. 

Membrane  in  the  form  of  a  leaf  folded  up  upon  the  end  of 
the  nose ;  tongue  extensible,  terminated  by  papillae,  which 
appear  to  form  an  organ  of  suction.  Vampire ;  Javelin  Bat. 


MAMMALIA.  35 

TRIBE  II.     GALEOPITHECUS. 

Fingers  of  the  anterior  limbs  all  furnished  with  trenchant 
claws,  and  not  longer  than  those  of  the  posterior  limbs ;  so 
that  the  lateral  membrane  performs  only  the  office  of  a  spe- 
cies of  parachute ;  live  upon  trees,  where  they  leap  from 
branch  to  branch;  insectivorous.  [Indian  Archipelago.] 

FAMILY  II.     INSECTIVORA. 

No  wings  nor  parachute,  but  clavicles  like  the  first  family. 
Molar  teeth  studded  with  little  conical  points,  in  accordance 
with  their  insectivorous  habits ;  some  have  long  incisors  in 
front;  others  incisors  and  canini  shorter  than  the  molars; 
mammae  placed  under  the  abdomen;  size  small;  life  noc- 
turnal; habitation,  during  the  day,  in  holes  and  burrows. 
In  cold  climates  many  of  them  pass  the  winter  in  a  torpid 
state. 

GENUS  I.     ERiNACEUS,*Lin.     Hedgehog. 

Spines  instead  of  hairs ;  the  skin  of  the  back  is  furnished 
with'  such  muscles,  that  the  animal,  by  inclining  the  head 
and  feet  towards  the  abdomen,  can  shut  itself  up  as  in  a 
purse,  and  present  his  spines  on  all  sides  to  an  enemy ;  ha- 
bitation in  the  woods ;  life  nocturnal. 

GENUS  II.     SOREX,  Lin.     Shrew. 

Body  small,  covered  with  hair;  muzzle  sharply  pointed ; 
ears  short  and  rounded;  upon  each  flank  a  band  of  stiff  setse, 
from  which  issues  an  odorous  humour ;  habitation  in  holes 
excavated  in  the  earth ;  life  nocturnal. 

GENUS  III.     TALPA.     Mole. 

Type  of  digging,  subterranean  animals;  body  thick  and 
short;  muzzle  elongated  and  terminated  1»\  a  movable  snout, 
serving  to  pierce  the  earth ;  anterior  limbs  very  short,  very 
strong,  wide,  with  united  fingers  to  the  number  of  five,  and 
armed  with  trenchant  claws  proper  for  digging.  Hinder  feet 
weak,  and  with  five  fingers;  tail  rather  short;  eye  small  and 
concealed  by  hair ;  no  external  ear. 


/jPsSpBB 

pElTlfttlTI 

. '• .        OSP      -v 


36  MAMMALIA. 

FAMILY  III.     CARNIVORA. 

Four  thick  and  long  canine  teeth ;  six  incisives  in  each  jaw, 
the  root  of  the  second  of  the  lower  ones  being  placed  a  little 
more  inwards  than  the  others ;  the  molars  are  entirely  tren- 
chant or  have  blunted  tuberculous  parts,  but  never  bristled 
with  conical  points.  The  anterior  molars  are  the  most  tren- 
chant, they  are  called  false  molars]  next  comes  a  molar  larger 
than  the  others  and  which  has  generally  a  tuberculous  heel 
more  or  less  wide,  it  is  called  carnivorous;  then  follow  one  or 
two  small  teeth  perfectly  flat,  and  denominated  tuberculous. 
These  animals  are  more  or  less  carnivorous  in  proportion  to 
the  quantity  of  the  tuberculous  surfaces,  the  acuteness  of  the 
false  molars  and  the  length  of  the  canine.  Those  genera 
having  the  fewest  false  molars  and  shortest  jaws  are  best 
adapted  for  biting ;  upon  these  differences  they  are  most  sa- 
tisfactorily established.  Three  tribes. 

TRIBE  I.     PLANTIGRADA. 

Animals  walking  upon  the  entire  sole  of  the  foot,  and 
having  no  hair  upon  this  part;  five  fingers  on  all  the  feet. 
In  the  slowness  of  their  movements  and  in  their  nocturnal 
habits  they  resemble  the  Insectivora,  and,  like  them,  want 
the  csecum.  The  greater  number  of  those  who  inhabit  cold 
countries  pass  the  winter  in  a  torpid  state.  Three  remark- 
able genera. 

GENUS  I.     URSUS,  Lin.     Bear. 

A  variable  number  of  very  small  false  molars  behind  the 
carnivorous  teeth ;  three  large  molars  on  each  side  of  each  jaw, 
entirely  tuberculous;  canines  rounded  and  very  large;  body 
stout;  limbs  thick;  tail  very  short.  These  Mammalia  possess 
great  prudence,  and  are  less  formidable  than  is  ordinarily  sup- 
posed. Nearly  fructivorous,  or  at  least  omnivorous,  by  their 
dental  system,  they  prefer  fruits  to  flesh;  and  it  is  only  when 
pressed  by  famine,  that  they  attack  other  animals.  They  are 
found  in  all  regions  of  the  globe;  their  fur  and  their  fat  cause 
them  to  be  actively  pursued ;  the  chase,  however,  is  not  without 
danger,  on  account  of  their  obstinate  courage  and  their  great 
strength.  There  are  countries,  notwithstanding,  where  the 
people  make  no  scruple  of  attacking  them,  without  other 


MAMMALIA.  37 

weapon  than  a  stake  which  they  endeavour  to  force  into  the 
stomach,  profiting  by  the  moment  when  they  rear  upon  their 
hind  legs  the  better  to  wrestle  with  their  enemy,  and  to  stifle 
him  in  their  embrace,  according  to  their  usual  fashion.  Their 
flesh  is  much  esteemed,  and  their  paws  are  considered  a  deli- 
cacy. U.  Arctos ;  U.  Americanus ;  U.  Labiatus ;  U.  Mari- 
timus. 

GENUS  II.     PROCYON,  Storr.     Racoon. 

Canine  teeth  straight,  three  false  molars  pointed;  three 
tuberculous  molars  behind,  on  each  side.  Tail,  long,  re- 
sembles the  Bear's.  Inhabit  North  America  and  South 
America. 

GENUS  III.     MELES,  Storr.     Badger. 

These  sad  and  timid  animals  inhabit  the  temperate  regions 
of  Europe  and  of  Asia,  and  dig  for  themselves,  by  means  of 
their  claws,  winding  tunnels  beneath  the  earth,  which  they 
furnish  with  dry  grass.  They  come  out  only  at  night  in 
search  of  their  food,  which  consists  of  rabbits,  field  mice  and 
lizards.  When  pressed  by  hunger  they  content  themselves 
with  roots  and  fruits.  Only  one  species  is  known,  which  is 
actively  pursued  for  its  fur  which  furnishes  a  stiff  hair  suit- 
able for  shaving  brushes.  When  attacked,  it  throws  itself 
upon  its  back,  and  presents  to  its  enemy  its  four  feet,  com- 
bating with  desperate  resolution,  and  seldom  dies  unrevenged. 
Have  a  small  tooth  behind  the  canine  followed  by  two  pointed 
molars ;  then  comes  in  the  upper  jaw  a  carnivorous  tooth  behind , 
which  is  a  large  square  tuberculous  one.  Tail  short;  claws 
of  forefeet  long,  and  a  peculiar  sac  under  the  tail  exuding  a 
fetid  humour.  Skin  of  its  abdomen  at  least  as  thick  as  that 
of  its  back. 

S      *-"  •      •*  "    V  "'     '        :  ' 

TRIBE  II.     DIGITIGRADA. 

Animals  walking  upon  the  extremity  of  the  toes,  lifting  the 
tarsus.  Three  groups,  of  which  Plate  9  includes  only  the 
two  first. 

Group  I. 

Only  one  tuberculous  tooth  behind  the  upper  carnivorous ; 
body  very  long ;  limbs  short,  permitting  them  to  pass  through 
the  narrowest  openings ;  they  have  hence  been  called  vermi- 


38  MAMMALIA. 


. 


form;  small  and  weak,  they  are  nevertheless  very  cruel,  and 
live  on  blood  ;  they  do  not  become  torpid  in  winter.  Four 
remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     PUTORIUS,  Cuv.     Pole-Cat. 

Head  rounded ;  muzzle  short  and  extending  beyond  the 
mouth  ;  ears  round  and  much  wider  than  high  ;  tongue  co- 
vered with  pimples ;  as  many  as  five  toes  on  all  the  feet,  and 
united  in  three  fourths  of  their  length  by  a  loose  membrane  ; 
smell  detestable ;  life  nocturnal  and  solitary ;  disposition 
more  cruel  than  in  any  other  kind 

The  common  Pole-cat  is  brown,  approaching  to  black;  the 
sides  of  a  reddish  yellow ;  fifteen  or  eighteen  inches  long, 
without  counting  the  tail  which  is  six ;  it  is  the  terror  of  hen- 
roosts and  warrens ;  it  will  crush  the  heads  of  all  the  fowls 
in  a  poultry  yard,  and  transport  them  one  by  one  to  its  den. 
If,  as  often  happens,  it  cannot  carry  them  off  entire,  on  ac- 
count of  the  narrowness  of  the  hole  through  which  it  entered, 
it  devours  the  brains  and  carries  oif  the  heads. 

GENUS  II.     MEPHITIS,  Cuv.     Skunk. 

Two  false  molars  above,  three  below,  the  superior  tuber- 
culous one  very  large  ;  anterior  nails  long  and  fitted  for  dig- 
ging; remarkable  for  their  fetid  exhalations.  [America  and 
Java.] 

GENUS  III.     MUSTELA.     Marten. 

Great  resemblance  to  the  Pole-cat ;  muzzle,  however,  more 
elongated  ;  has  an  additional  false  molar  above  and  below ; 
tongue  covered  with  soft  pimples.  [Both  continents.] 

GENUS  IV.     LUTRA.     Otter. 

Head  large  and  compressed ;  body  slim ;  tongue  demi- 
asperate ;  on  all  the  feet  toes  to  the  number  of  five,  armed 
with  short  claws,  united  throughout  their  whole  length  by  a 
broad  and  strong  membrane,  which,  together  with  the  ex- 
treme shortness  of  their  limbs,  and  their  horizontally  flat- 
tened tail,  gives  them  facility  in  swimming ;  fur  very  thick 
and  composed  of  two  sorts  of  hair,  one  silky,  long,  glossy  and 
thicker  at  the  point  than  at  the  base,  the  other  woolly,  shorter 
and  more  abundant.  They  live  on  fish. 


MAMMALIA.  39 

•    <^  •  "*' 
Group  II. 

Two  flat  tuberculous  teeth  behind  the  superior  carnivo- 
rous tooth,  which  is  itself  furnished  with  a  large  heel.  They 
are  carnivorous,  but  do  not  exhibit  a  courage  proportioned  to 
their  size  and  strength;  they  frequently  feed  on  carrion. 
Two  genera. 

GENUS  I.     CANUS,  Lin.     Dog. 

Three  false  molars  above,  four  below ;  two  tuberculous 
teeth  behind  each  of  the  carnivorous ;  the  first  upper  tuber- 
culous tooth  very  large ;  a  small  tubercle  upon  the  upper 
carnivorous  ;  a  very  large  one  upon  the  under ;  tongue  soft ; 
five  toes  to  the  fore  and  four  to  the  hind  foot ;  claws  for  dig- 
ging; sight  excellent;  hearing  acute ;  smell  of  an  astonishing 
delicacy ;  diet  half  vegetable,  half  animal ;  a  depraved  taste 
for  carrion  ;  size  middling ;  proportions  of  the  body  betoken- 
ing strength  and  agility.  Two  subdivisions. 

Subdivision  I.     Dog  properly  so  called. 

Head  oblong,  covered  with  hairs  shorter  than  those  of  the  rest 
of  the  body ;  tail  little  tufted  ;  pupil  of  the  eye  round  during 
the  day;  upper  incisives  presenting  three  festoons.  The 
different  races  of  the  domestic  Dog  are  useful  allies  to  Man, 
faithful  friends,  who  alone,  of  all  other  animals,  have  fol- 
lowed him  throughout  the  world.  Some  naturalists  suppose 
the  Dog  to  be  a  Wolf  or  domesticated  Jackal. 

Subdivision  II.     Fox. 

Head  broader ;  muzzle  more  pointed ;  upper  incisors 
straight;  tail  longer  and  more  tufted  than  in  Dogs;  fissure  of 
the  pupil  vertical  during  the  day ;  odour  fetid. 

GENUS  II.     VIVERRA.     Civet. 

Three  false  molars  above,  four  below,  the  anterior  of  which 
sometimes  fall  out ;  two  pretty  large  tuberculous  teeth  above, 
only  one  below ;  tongue  bristled  with  sharp  and  rough  pa- 
pillae; claws  more  or  less  retractile.  They  often  emit  an 
agreeable  perfume.  Three  remarkable  subdivisions. 

SUBGENUS  I.     VIVERRA,  Cuv.     Civets,  properly  so  called. 

A  deep  pouch  divided  into  two  sacs,  filled  with  a  pom- 
made  of  a  strong  musky  smell ;  pupil  of  the  eye  round  during, 
the  day ;  claws  semi-retractile. 


40  MAMMALIA. 

t 

SUBGENUS  II.     GENETTA,  Cuv.     Genets. 

Odoriferous  pouch  reduced  to  a  slight  depression  formed 
by  the  projection  of  the  glands,  and  without  any  sensible  ex- 
cretion ;  claws  retractile. 

SUBGENUS  III.     MANGUSTA,  Cuv.     Mangouste. 

Pouch  voluminous,  simple  and  containing  no  odorous  mat- 
ter ;  claws  semi-retractile.  The  Egyptian  Mangouste  is  cele- 
brated under  the  title  of  Ichneumon.  It  has  a  long  tail  ter- 
minated with  a  black  tuft.  It  is  larger  than  our  Cat  and  as 
slender  as  a  Marten.  By  the  Europeans,  at  Cairo,  it  is  called 
Pharaoh's  rat,  but  by  the  natives  nemus.  There  is  no  foun- 
dation for  the  classical  tradition  respecting  its  practice  of 
jumping  down  the  throat  of  the  Crocodile.  It  devours  its 
eggs,  however,  with  avidity. 

Group  III. 

No  small  teeth  behind  the  carnivorous  tooth  of  the  lower 
jaw ;  carnivorous  instinct  more  fully  developed  than  in  all  the 
other  Carnaria.  Two  genera. 

•  •  .  ..,,.•"  -v ;•••'.'•  "..,./ 

GENUS  I.     HYJENA,  Storr. 

Three  false  molars  above,  four  below,  remarkably  large, 
capable  of  breaking  the  bones  of  the  strongest  prey ;  tongue 
rough ;  four  toes  on  all  the  feet,  armed  with  huge  trenchant 
claws;  sense  of  smell  delicate;  tail  short  and  pendent;  a 
deep  glandular  pouch  secreting  a  matter  of  disagreeable 
odour ;  fur  rough,  sparse,  composed  of  long  hair,  forming  a 
crest  upon  the  back ;  gait  peculiar,  on  account  of  the  body 
being  lower  behind  than  before ;  life  nocturnal ;  habitation  in 
caverns ;  a  depraved  appetite  for  dead  bodies,  which  it  will 
seek  even  in  the  grave. 

GENUS  TI.     FELIS,  Lin.     Cat. 

Muzzle  short  and  round ;  jaws  possessing  the  greatest 
power  known  on  account  of  their  shortness,  and  the  muscular 
masses  destined  to  move  them  ;  only  one  small- tuberculous 
tooth  behind  the  upper  carnivorous,  without  any  correspond- 
ing one  below ;  two  false  molars  above  and  below ;  enormous 
canine  teeth  adjoining  the  incisives,  and  more  than  twice 
their  length  ;  five  toes  before  and  four  behind,  all  armed  with 
retractile  claws,  which,  being  raised  perpendicularly,  and 


MAMMALIA.  41 

entirely  concealed  among  the  toes  while  in  repose,  by  means 
of  elastic  ligaments,  lose  neither  their  point  nor  edge ;  sense 
of  smell  less  acute  than  among  the  Dogs ;  tongue  hard  and 
bristled  with  horny  papillae,  serving  to  rasp  the  soft  portions 
of  their  prey  ;  hearing  well  developed ;  sight  excellent ;  open- 
ing of  the  pupil  round  or  vertical  according  to  the  mode  of 
life.  They  are  formidable  animals,  capable  of  tearing  to 
pieces,  with  the  greatest  facility,  the  most  powerful  prey. 
Lion,  Tiger,  Panther,  Cougar,  Lynx,  Domestic  Cat,  &c. 

TRIBE  III.     AMPHIBIA. 

Feet  so  short  and  so  enveloped  in  skin  that  they  only  serve 
for  creeping  when  upon  land,  but  form  excellent  oars  in  the 
water ;  body  much  elongated ;  spine  very  movable,  and  pro- 
vided with  muscles  which  strongly  flex  it;  five  toes  on  all 
the  feet ;  no  clavicles  nor  bony  rudiments  suspended  in  the 
flesh  ;  habitation  most  generally  in  the  sea.  Two  genera. 

GENUS  I.     PHOCA.     Seal. 

Four  or  six  incisors  above ;  four  or  two  below ;  pointed 
canines  in  both  jaws ;  grinders  twenty  to  twenty-four,  tren- 
chant and  conical,  without  any  tuberculous  portion ;  five 
toes  to  all  the  feet ;  those  on  the  fore  feet  decreasing  from  the 
large  to  the  little  toe,  while  on  the  hind  feet  the  large  and 
little  toe  are  longest.  There  are  two  divisions — seals  without 
external  ears  and  seals  with  external  ears',  those  without  have 
pointed  incisors ;  all  the  toes  endowed  with  a  certain  motion r 
and  terminated  by  pointed  claws  placed  upon  the  edge  of  the 
membrane  which  unites  them.  Those  with  external  ears 
have  the  four  upper  incisors  smaller,  but  with  a  double  cut- 
ting edge ;  toes  of  the  anterior  limbs  almost  immovable ;  all 
the  claws  flat  and  thin. 

GENUS  II.     TRICHECUS,  Lin.     Morse. 

Under  jaw  without  incisors  or  canines ;  upper  jaw  furnished 
with  two  long  canines,  like  tusks,  between  which  are  two 
incisors ;  four  cylindrical  molars  on  each  side  and  in  each 
jaw;  dental  system  arranged  rather  for  the  breaking  of 
shells  than  for  cutting  soft  substances  or  bruising  vegetables. 


42  MAMMALIA. 


ORDER  IV.     MARSUPIALIA.* 

Premature  production  of  their  young,  which,  incapable  of 
movement  and  possessing  hardly  the  germs  of  limbs,  attach 
themselves  to  the  mammae  of  the  mother,  there  to  perfect 
their  development.  The  skin  of  the  abdomen  generally 
disposed  in  the  form  of  a  pouch  about  the  mammae,  and  sup- 
ported by  two  articulated  bones  in  the  pelvis,  called  marsu- 
pial bones.  One  striking  feature  in  this  order  is,  that,  although 
there  is  great  similarity  in  one  species  to  another,  yet  they  vary 
very  much  in  the  teeth,  digestive  organs  and  feet.  They 
appear  to  be  the  connecting  link  from  the  Carnaria  to  the 
Rodentia;  and  some  animals  having  the  marsupial  bones, 
but  entirely  without  teeth,  have  been  placed  with  the  Eden- 
tata. Six  tribes. 

TRIBE  I.     DIDELPHIS,  LIN.     OPOSSUM. 

Long  canines  and  small  incisors  in  both  jaws.  One  re- 
markable genus,  the  Opossums,  have  fifty  teeth  ;  the  posterior 
thumbs  long  and  easily  opposable,  a  circumstance  which  has 
caused  them  to  be  termed  Pedimana  ;  tail  prehensile  and  in 
part  naked;  fetid,  nocturnal  animals,  with  a  slow  gait;  ha- 
bitation upon  trees.  [America  alone.] 

TRIBE  II.     PHALANGISTA,  Cuv.     PHALANGERS. 

Upper  canines  long  and  pointed  ;  the  inferior  almost  invi- 
sible ;  thumb  large  ;  the  two  toes  united  as  far  as  the  first 
phalanx.  There  are  two  remarkable  genera.  The  Phalanger 
proper  has  a  prehensile  tail,  often  in  a  great  measure  scaly  ; 
diet  insectivorous  and  fructivorous  ;  habitation  upon  trees. 
[The  Moluccas.]  The  Flying  Phalanger  has  an  extension 
of  the  skin  of  the  sides,  forming  a  parachute;  habitation 
upon  trees.  [New  Holland.] 

TRIBE  III.     HYPSIPRYMNUS,  ILLIG.     POTOROOS. 

No  posterior  thumb  nor  inferior  canines  ;  toes  united  as  in 
the  Phalangers. 

*  Pouched. 


MAMMALIA.  43 

TRIBE  IV.     MACROPUS,  SHAW.     KANGAROO. 

No  canines ;  legs  of  unequal  height,  the  hinder  ones  the 
longest ;  tail  short,  muscular  and  serving  as  an  organ  of  sup- 
port and  locomotion. 

TRIBE  V.     KOALA,  Cuv. 

Two  long  incisives  in  the  under  jaw ;  in  the  upper  jaw  two 
long  incisives  in  the  middle,  small  ones  upon  the  sides,  and 
two  small  canines.  No  tail. 

TRIBE  VI.     PHASCOLOMES.     POUCHED  RATS. 

True  Rodentia  in  the  teeth  and  intestines  ;  no  tail ;  form 
clumsy ;  body  as  if  crushed ;  head  large  and  flat ;  legs  short ; 
claws  long  and  fit  for  digging  ;  graminivorous. 


ORDER  V.     RODENTIA. 

In  each  jaw  two  large  incisors,  increasing  during  life,  and 
of  prismatic  form;  the  enamel  being  concentrated  to  the  front. 
No  canines;  molars  with  flat  crowns,  whose  enamelled  emi- 
nences are  always  transverse.  Under  jaw  articulated  by  a 
longitudinal  condyle,  so  as  to  have  no  horizontal  movement 
except  from  behind  to  before,  and  vice-versa,  as  is  suitable 
for  the  action  of  gnawing.  Carriage  behind,  in  general,  higher 
than  before,  making  these  animals  leapers ;  intestines  very 
long ;  stomach  simple  or  little  divided ;  caecum  very  volumi- 
nous ;  brain  nearly  smooth,  and  without  convolutions ;  eyes 
directed  sideways,  large  in  the  nocturnal  species,  and  dimi- 
nishing as  the  habit  is  more  subterranean ;  forearms  have  but 
little  power  of  rotation,  and  the  two  bones  are  often  united. 
Six  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     SCIURTJS,  Lin.     Squirrel. 

Inferior  incisors  strongly  compressed ;  tail  long  and  well 
furnished  with  hair ;  four  toes  before  and  five  behind  ;  head 
broad ;  eyes  projecting  and  lively ;  clavicles  complete.  Two 
subgenera. 


44  MAMMALIA. 

SCIURUS,  Cuv.     Squirrel  proper. 

Hairs  of  the  tail  arranged  upon  the  sides  in  the  manner 
of  a  large  feather ;  diet  fructivorous ;  habitation  upon  trees. 
[Both  continents.] 

PTEROMYS.     Flying  Squirrel. 

Feet  with  long  bony  appendages  sustaining  a  lateral  fold 
of  the  skin. 

GENUS  II.     Mus,  Lin.     Rat. 

Linnaeus  united  under  one  head  all  the  Rodentia  provided 
with  clavicles  which  he  could  not  distinguish  by  some  exte- 
rior mark.  Six  remarkable  subgenera. 

ARCTOMYS,  Gm.     Marmot. 

Molars  bristled,  with  conical  joints,  ten  above,  eight  below ; 
limbs  short,  with  very  strong  claws ;  tail  rudimental ;  four 
fingers,  and  one  tubercle,  supplying  the  place  of  the  thumb, 
upon  the  fore-limbs;  five  behind.  They  live  in  societies,  dig 
burrows  and  form  within  them  beds  of  grass,  upon  which 
they  pass  the  winter  in  torpor.  Diet  both  insectivorous  and 
fructivorous.  From  this  F.  Cuvier  has  separated  those  Mar- 
mots that  have  cheek-pouches.  The  Prairie  Dog  belongs  to 
this  subgenus. 

Mus,  Cuv.     Rat  proper. 

Six  molars  in  each  jaw ;  four  fingers  and  a  vestige  of  a 
thumb  before,  five  behind.  Tail  long  and  scaly.  Diet  om- 
nivorous ;  voracious.  .^ 

MYOXUS,  Gm.     Dormice. 

Eight  molars  traversed  by  furrows  in  each  jaw ;  inferior 
incisors  pointed ;  tail  very  long,  soft,  and  even  tufted ;  habita- 
tion upon  trees,  where  they  live  upon  fruits ;  become  torpid 
in  winter. 

CRICETUS,  Cuv.     Hamsters. 

Six  simple  molars  in  each  jaw ;  five  toes  on  all  the  feet ; 
cheek-pouches;  stomach  with. double  cavity;  eyes  large;  tail 
hairy,  short  and  soft ;  habitation  in  furrows  of  six  or  seven 
feet  deep,  dug  by  means  of  their  claws,  and  whither  they 
transport,  in  their  cheek-pouches,  considerable  quantities  of 
grain. 


MAMMALIA.  45 

ARVICOLA,  Lacep.     CAMPAGNOLS.     Water  and  Field  Rats. 

Three  molars  throughout,  but  without  roots,  and  formed 
each  of  triangular  prisms  placed  on  two  alternate  lines.  Tail 
moderately  long  and  soft ;  e.ars  pretty  large. 

DIPUS,  Gm.    Jerboas. 

Posterior  extremities  of  a  disproportionate  length ;  the  me- 
tatarsus of  the  three  middle  toes  formed  of  a  single  bone,  re- 
sembling what  is  called  the  tarsus  in  Birds.  Fore  feet  very 
short  in  proportion  with  those  behind,  and  furnished  with  five 
toes.  Sometimes  to  the  hind  feet  there  are  two  small  lateral 
toes  besides  the  three  large  middle  ones.  Tail  long  and 
tufted ;  progresses  by  huge  leaps,  sometimes  of  seven  or  eight 
feet. 

GENUS  III.     CASTOR,  Lin.     Beavers. 

Tail  flattened  horizontally,  almost  oval,  and  covered  with 
scales.  Five  toes  to  each  foot;  those  behind  united  by  a 
membrane ;  that  which  comes  next  to  the  thumb  has  a  double 
and  oblique  nail.  Molars  to  the  number  of  four  everywhere, 
and  with  flat  crowns.  The  known  species  inhabits  princi- 
pally the  solitudes  of  North  America,  and  constructs  for 
the  winter,  upon  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes,  ingenious 
dwellings,  whose  regular  distribution,  admired  by  all  travel- 
lers, has  been  described  in  the  most  eloquent  works.  They 
live  on  the  bark  of  trees,  and  unite  to  the  number  of  three 
hundred,  or  thereabouts,  to  form  colonies,  and  labour  in  es- 
tablishing dikes  against  the  streams. 

GENUS  IV.     HISTRIX,  Lin.     Porcupines. 

Head  as  if  swollen ;  body  armed  with  spines,  very  long  and 
ringed  in  a  regular  manner  with  black  and  white ;  clavicles 
rudimentary ;  molars  to  the  number  of  four  throughout,  with 
flat  crowns,  differently  modified  by  plates  of  enamel,  between 
which  are  depressed  intervals.  Tongue  bristled,  with  spiny 
scales.  Four  toes  before,  five  behind.  They  walk  on  the 
sole  of  the  foot, 

GENUS  V.     LEPUS,  Lin.     Hares. 

Clavicles  rudimentary ;  posterior  limbs  long;  two  small  in- 
cisors behind  the  upper  ones ;  five  molars  throughout,  formed 
each  of  two  vertical  plates  soldered  together.  Five  toes  be- 


46  MAMMALIA. 

fore,  four  behind.  Interior  of  the  mouth  and  bottom  of  the 
feet  furnished  with  hair  like  the  rest  of  the  body ;  ears  long ; 
tail  short. 

GENUS  VI.     CAVIA,  Illig.     Guinea-Pigs. 

Molars  composite,  each  only  one  simple  lamina  and  one 
forked,  no  tail ;  toes  free,  four  before,  three  behind.  These 
are  little  timid  Mammalia,  living  on  dry  soils,  where  they 
pass  the  day  in  the  shelter  of  stones  and  brambles,  seeking 
their  food  at  night.  The  species  so  common  in  Europe  under 
the  name  of  Guinea-pig  is  originally  from  the  immense  forests 
of  Brazil. 


ORDER  VI.     EDENTATA.* 

No  incisive  teeth  in  either  jaw ;  sometimes  canines  and 
molars,  sometimes  molars  only,  often  no  teeth  at  all.  Nails 
enveloping  the  ends  of  the  toes,  and  approaching  to  the  nature 
of  hoofs;  at  least  the  rudiments  of  clavicles.  Three  families. 

FAMILY  I.     TARDIGRADA. 

So  named  from  the  slowness  of  their  motions.  Face  short ; 
molars  cylindrical ;  canines  sharp,  longer  than  the  molars ; 
two  pectoral  mammae ;  toes  united  by  the  skin  and  terminated 
by  enormous  claws  compressed  and  crooked,  and  when  in 
repose,  bent  towards  the  palm  of  the  hand  or  the  sole  of  the 
foot;  forearms  much  longer  than  the  thighs  and  legs,  making 
it  a  painful  effort  to  walk.  Habitation  upon  trees  which  they 
strip  of  leaves.  One  genus. 

BRADYPUS,  Lin.     Sloth. 

Two  species,  the  Ai  and  Unau,  natives  of  the  hot  parts  of 
America. 

FAMILY  II.     EDENTATA  ORDINARIA. 

Ordinary  Edentata  with  a  pointed  muzzle,  and  some  with 
cheek  teeth.  Four  genera. 

*  Without  front  teeth. 


MAMMALIA.  47 

GENUS  I.     DASYPUS,  Lin.     Armadillo. 

Body  covered  with  a  hard  shell  composed  of  compartments 
resembling  small  paving  stones,  which  cover  the  body,  the 
head,  and  often  the  tail ;  this  substance  is  formed  of  three 
parts,  a  shield  upon  the  front,  a  second  very  large  upon  the 
shoulders,  a  similar  one  upon  the  croup,  and  transverse  mov- 
able bands  between  the  two  latter.  Five  nails  on  the  hind 
foot,  sometimes  only  four  before,  of  which  the  two  middle  are 
longest ;  incisives  and  molars  vary  with  the  species. 

GENUS  IT.     MYRMECOPHAGA,  Lin.     Ant-Eaters. 

Hairy  animals,  with  pointed  muzzle  entirely  without  teeth, 
but  provided  with  a  large  piliform  tongue,  which  they  insi- 
nuate into  ant-hills  and  then  withdraw  in  order  to  swallow 
the  ants  which  their  viscid  saliva  has  caused  to  adhere. 
Nails  throughout ;  those  of  the  fore  feet  very  trenchant. 

GENUS  III.     ORYCTEROPUS,  Geoff. 

.    • 

This  genus  was  for  a  long  time  confounded  with  the  Ant- 
Eaters,  because  they  feed  upon  the  same  kind  of  food,  have 
the  same  form  of  head  and  an  extensible  tongue.  They  dif- 
fer, however,  in  being  provided  with  molars,  and  nails  fit  for 
digging.  The  structure  of  their  teeth  is  very  peculiar;  they 
are  cylindrical  and  traversed  in  a  longitudinal  direction  by  a 
multitude  of  canals.  Only  one  species  known— the  Earth 
Pig  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

GENUS  IV.     MANIS,  Lin.     Pangolins. 

No  teeth ;  tongue  very  extensible ;  body  and  tail  entirely 
covered  with  large  trenchant  scales.  Defend  themselves  by 
rolling  into  a  ball. 

FAMILY  III.     MONOTREMATA,  GEOFF. 

Animals  of  a  singular  structure,  and  subjects  of  long 
controversies  among  the  learned.  The  organization  inter- 
mediate between  that  of  the  three  first  classes  of  vertebrated 
animals,  as  the  following  characteristics  show — mammae; 
hair;  a  double  clavicle;  a  spur  on  the  hind  feet  of  the  males, 
pierced  with  a  canal  which  discharges  a  poisonous  liquid ;  no 
external  conch  to  the  ear;  no  enchased  teeth,  nor  fleshy  lips; 
eyes  very  small.  Two  genera.  Inhabit  New  Holland. 


48  MAMMALIA. 

GENUS  I.     ECHIDNA,  Cuv. 

Muzzle  very  slender  and  elongated,  terminated  by  a  small 
mouth;  tongue  very  extensible;  body  covered  with  very 
strong  spines,  sometimes  intermingled  with  hair ;  feet  short ; 
nails  strong,  fit  for  digging ;  tail  very  short. 

GENUS  II.     ORNITHORHYNCHUS,  Blumenb. 

Muzzle  elongated,  horny,  wide,  much  depressed,  in  the 
form  of  a  duck's  bill,  and  garnished  with  small  transverse 
laminae.  Mouth  provided  above  and  below  with  only  two 
teeth  without  roots,  and  with  flat  crowns.  Fore  feet  with  a 
membrane  between  the  toes ;  the  hind  ones  have  it  only  as 
far  as  the  root  of  the  nails.  [Marshes  of  New  Holland.] 


ORDER  VII.     PACHYDERMATA.* 

Feet  with  five,  three,  two  or  one  toe  unguiculated ;  that 
is  to  say,  where  one  or  more  phalanges  are  entirely  enve- 
loped in  a  large  nail  called  hoof,  which  renders  prehension 
impossible;  frequently  three  sorts  of  teeth,  sometimes  only 
two;  no  clavicles;  stomach  simple  or  divided  into  several 
pouches,  but  unfit  for  rumination ;  skin  most  frequently  thick, 
naked  or  nearly  so.  Three  families. 

FAMILY  I.     PROBOSCIDIANA. 

Five  toes  to  each  foot,  incrusted  with  a  callous  skin  which 
surrounds  the  foot,  scarcely  perceived  except  by  the  nails 
that  appear  to  be  attached  to  the  edge  of  this  skin  or  species 
of  hoof;  four  to  eight  molars ;  no  canine ;  incisives,  project- 
ing sufficiently  to  be  called  tusks,  frequently  attaining  to  a 
large  size  ;  trunk  or  proboscis  very  long  ;  with  it  he  conveys 
his  food  and  water  to  his  mouth ;  mammae,  two  in  number, 
attached  to  the  chest ;  the  young  suck  with  the  mouth,  not 
using  the  trunk  for  that  purpose.  There  are  two  genera,  of 
which  one  (Mastodon,  Cuv.)  is  fossil. 

*  Thick  skinned. 


MAMMALIA.  49 

ELEPHAS,  Lin.     Elephant. 

Molars  with  flat  crowns  composed  of  a  certain  number  of 
vertical  laminse,  each  being  formed  of  a  bony  substance  in- 
veloped  with  enamel  and  bound  together  by  a  cortical  sub- 
stance ;  size  gigantic ;  skin  very  thick  and  wrinkled ;  ears 
very  wide  and  flat;  nose  prolonged  into  a  long  movable 
trunk.  They  consume  about  a  hundred  pounds  of  hay  per 
day,  and  from  twelve  to  fifteen  buckets  of  water.  They  will 
carry  a  burthen  of  three  thousand  pounds.  Two  species,  the 
African  and  the  Indian. 

FAMILY  II.     PACHYDERM  ATA  ORDINARIA. 

The  three  kinds  of  teeth  in  the  greatest  number,  in  the 
rest  at  least  two  sorts ;  feet  terminated  by  four  toes  at  the 
most,  and  at  the  least  by  two.  Four  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     HIPPOPOTAMUS,  Lin. 

Feet  terminated  by  small  hoofs  ;  six  grinders  throughout; 
very  strong  canines,  of  which  the  inferior  are  crooked ;  four 
incisors  in  each  jaw;  body  very  massive  and  devoid  of  hair; 
legs  very  short ;  stomach  trailing  nearly  to  the  earth ;  tail 
short;  head  very  large;  eyes  and  ears  small ;  diet  herbivo- 
rous ;  habitation  in  the  rivers  of  the  middle  and  south  of  Af- 
rica. Only  one  species. 

GENUS  II.     Sus,  Lin.    Hog. 

The  two  middle  toes  large  and  with  strong  hoofs,  the  two 
exterior  ones  much  shorter  and  not  touching  the  earth ;  inci- 
sors varying  in  number;  canines  curve  upwards  and  late- 
rally ;  molars  with  tuberculous  crowns ;  muzzle  truncated 
and  terminated  by  a  snout.  Body  covered  with  bristles. 

GENUS  III.    RHINOCEROS,  Lin. 

Three  toes  to  each  foot ;  skin  very  thick  and  wrinkled ; 
one  or  two  horns  of  a  fibrous  nature  placed  upon  the  middle 
line  of  the  nose,  of  which  the  bones  are  exceedingly  strong, 
and  united  in  an  arch  for  their  support;  this  weapon  serves 
them  to  fight  with,  and  to  disembowel  their  enemies  the 
tiger  and  lion.  They  inhabit  only  the  equatorial  zone  of  the 
old  continent. 


50  MAMMALIA. 

GENUS  IV.    TAPIR,  Lin. 

Molars  presenting  in  each  before  they  are  worn  two  trans- 
verse rectilinear  eminences ;  six  incisors  and  two  canines  in 
each  jaw,  separated  from  the  molars  by  a  vacant  space ;  four 
toes  to  the  fore  feet  and  three  to  the  hind  ones.  [South 
America  and  India.] 

FAMILY  III.     SOLIPEDES. 

Quadrupeds  having  only  one  apparent  toe  and  a  single  hoof 
to  such  foot.  One  genus. 

EQUUS,  Lin.     Horse. 

Six  incisors  in  each  jaw,  which,  when  the  animal  is  young, 
have  the  crown  ridged ;  six  molars  throughout,  with  square 
crowns  marked  with  four  crescents ;  two  small  canines  in  the 
males  in  the  upper  jaw  (and  sometimes  in  both  jaws),  which 
are  almost  always  wanting  in  the  females ;  stomach  simple 
and  of  moderate  size;  intestines  very  long.  The  original 
country  of  these  animals  appears  to  be  the  deserts  about  the 
Caspian  sea.  They  are  found  in  the  wild  state  in  the  plains 
of  South  America,  where  they  live  in  troops  of  sometimes 
more  than  ten  thousand,  commanded  by  courageous  leaders. 
The  Horse,  Ass,  Zebra. 


ORDER  VIII.    RUMINANTIA. 

Incisors  generally  as  many  as  eight  in  the  under  jaw  alone, 
and  replaced  in  the  upper  by  a  callous  pad ;  between  the 
incisors  and  molars  is  an  empty  space  where,  in  some  genera, 
we  find  one  or  two  canines ;  molars  generally  to  the  number 
of  six  throughout ;  four  feet  terminated  by  two  toes  and  two 
hoofs,  which  face  each  other  by  a  flat  surface,  whence  these 
animals  are  called  cloven-footed]  sometimes  behind  the  hoof 
are  two  small  spurs,  traces  of  lateral  toes ;  the  two  bones  of 
the  metacarpus  and  metatarsus  are  united  into  one  called  the 
cannon.  There  are  always  four  stomachs :  the  first  and 
largest  is  called  the  paunch ;  it  receives,  in  large  quantities, 


MAMMALIA.  51 

vegetables  coarsely  bruised  by  a  first  mastication ;  thence 
they  are  borne  into  the  second,  which  is  termed  the  bonnet* 
the  sides  of  which  have  laminse  resembling  those  in  a  honey- 
comb ;  this  stomach,  which  is  very  small  and  globular,  seizes 
the  food,  moistens  it  and  compresses  it  into  little  pellets, 
which  then  successively  ascend  to  the  mouth  to  be  rechewed. 
The  animal  remains  in  repose  during  this  operation,  which 
is  continued  until  all  the  food  received  into  the  paunch  has 
been  subjected  to  it.  When  thus  rechewed  it  descends  di- 
rectly into  the  third  stomach,  called  the  leaflet  on  account  of 
its  sides  having  longitudinal  laminse  resembling  the  leaves  of 
a  book :  thence  again  it  passes  into  the  fourth  stomach  or 
rennet,  whose  sides  have  only  wrinkles,  and  which  is  the  true 
organ  of  digestion.  Three  sections. 

Section  I.     Euminantia  without  Horns. 

There  are  two  genera,  the  genus  Camelus  and  the  genus 
Moschus,  Lin.,  Musk. 

GENUS  CAMELUS,  Lin.     Camel. 

Canines  in  both  jaws ;  two  pointed  teeth  implanted  in  the 
incisive  bone;  inferior  incisives  to  the  number  of  six;  eighteen 
or  twenty  molars ;  upper  lips  tumid  and  cleft ;  neck  long ; 
instead  of  the  large  hoof  flattened  upon  the  internal  side,  which 
invelopes  the  whole  inferior  portion  of  each  toe,  and  which 
determines  the  figure  of  the  ordinary  cloven  foot,  they  have 
merely  one  small  one  which  adheres  to  the  last  phalanx,  and 
is  of  symmetrical  form ;  large  masses  of  cells  cover  the  sides 
of  the  paunch.  Two  subgenera. 

SCBGENUS  CAMELUS,  Cuv.     Camel  proper. 

Toes  united  below,  nearly  to  the  point,  by  a  common  sole, 
horny  and  favourable  to  progression  upon  sand  ;  lumps  of  fat 
upon  the  back ;  a  second  canine  in  the  under  jaw  ;  four  mam- 
mae. There  are  camels  with  one  and  camels  with  two  humps. 
[Old  Continent.] 

SUBGENUS  AUCHENIA,  Illig.     Lama. 

Toes  separate  ;  no  lumps ;  no  second  canines  in  the  under 
jaw  ;  no  mammse ;  size  much  less  than  in  the  Camel.  [New 
Continent.] 


52  MAMMALIA. 

GENUS  MOSCHUS,  Lin.     Musk. 

A  long  canine  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw  and  projecting 
from  the  mouth  in  the  males ;  body  slender ;  feet  small ; 
tail  very  short ;  hair  short ;  hoofs  formed  like  those  of  the 
ordinary  Ruminantia;  no  lachrymal  apparatus;  one  species 
has  a  kind  of  pouch  placed  under  the  belly  of  the  male,  in 
which  is  inclosed  a  strong  odorous  humour  known  by  the 
name  of  Musk]  the  others  have  no  pouch.  [Old  Conti- 
nent.] 

Section  II.     Ruminantia  with  Solid  Horns. 
GENUS  CERVUS,  Lin.     Stag. 

The  Stag  is  an  animal  of  a  stately,  elegant  form ;. when  full 
grown  he  is  commonly  between  four  and  five  feet  high ;  often, 
when  he  enjoys  abundance  of  food,  and  lives  undisturbed  by 
man  or  the  beasts  of  prey,  he  attains  a  much  larger  size ;  his 
legs  are  slender  and  elegant;  tail  short;  ears  large  and  pointed; 
his  horns  lofty  and  branched.  The  female  is  of  a  smaller 
and  more  slender  form,  and  destitute  of  horns.  A  reddish 
brown  colour,  which  has  gained  this  genus  the  appellation  of 
Red  Deer,  distinguishes  the  upper  part  of  the  body;  the 
hinder  part  of  the  neck  and  the  space  between  the  shoulders 
are  marked  with  a  black  list;  some  part  of  the  face  is  com- 
monly black;  the  sides  and  under  part  are  white.  The 
Stag  loses  and  renews  his  horns  annually,  and,  for  a  while, 
each  set  of  horns  is  adorned  with  an  additional  branch.  The 
young  has  no  horns  the  first  year ;  in  his  second  year  his 
horns  are  single  and  straight,  and,  till  his  sixth,  the  number 
of  the  antlers  continues  to  increase.  From  this  period  they 
are  multiplied  so  irregularly,  that  the  animal's  age  is  esti- 
mated not  so  much  by  the  number  of  the  antlers  as  by  the 
size  and  thickness  of  the  whole  horns.  The  sprouting  horns 
are  at  first  extremely  tender,  and  covered  over  with  blood- 
vessels. They  grow  not  like  the  horns  of  the  Bull,  the  Sheep 
or  the  G  oat,  by  shooting  out  new  matter  at  the  roots,  and  mo- 
ving forward  that  which  is  already  formed,  but,  like  trees 
and  other  vegetable  bodies,  increase  their  length  by  additions 
at  the  points.  Delicacy  and  acuteness  of  the  senses  distin- 
guish the  Stag  in  an  eminent  degree ;  his  sense  of  smell  is 
exquisite ;  his  eye  is  sparkling,  soft  and  glowing  with  ex- 


MAMMALIA.  53 

pression ;  he  hears  distinct  and  low  sounds,  and  is  not  inca- 
pable of  relishing  the  melody  of  music.  One  mode  of  hunting 
this  animal,  practised  in  ancient  Greece,  was  for  two  persons 
to  go  out  together,  and  one  to  charm  the  unsuspecting  Stag 
with  the  melody  of  his  voice  or  his  pipe,  till  the  other  ap- 
proached near  enough  to  pierce  him  with  a  dart  or  arrow. 
These  animals  run  with  great  swiftness,  living  generally  in 
forests  upon  grass,  leaves  and  buds.  The  various  species 
are  scattered  throughout  North  and  South  America,  Europe 
and  Asia. 

GENUS  CAMELOPARDALIS,  Lin.     Giraffe. 

These  beautiful  animals  are  of  a  reddish  colour,  with  darker 
spots.  The  hair  of  the  tail  is  most  frequently  black.  The 
extreme  length  of  his  neck  and  shoulders  renders  it  difficult 
for  him  to  crop  grass  from  the  ground.  He  feeds  chiefly 
therefore  on  the  leaves  and  tender  shoots  of  trees.  Horns  in 
both  sexes  always  covered  by  a  soft  skin  and  never  falling ; 
no  larmier  or  muzzle ;  ears  long  and  pointed.  The  one  sole 
species  of  this  genus  embraces  the  tallest  of  animals.  Timid 
and  gentle  these  Ruminantia  defend  themselves  with  great 
courage  against  the  attack  of  large  Carnivora. 

Section  III.     Ruminantia  with  Hollow  Horns 
Are  the  most  numerous  section  of  this  order. 

GENUS  ANTILOPE. 

In  size  and  shape  these  animals  bear  great  resemblance  to 
the  Elk.  The  forehead  of  the  Antelope  is  flat  and  broad  above 
the  eyes,  but  from  the  eyes  to  the  tip  of  the  nose  becomes 
gradually  narrower  till  it  terminates  in  a  sharp  point ;  the 
breast  is  furnished  with  a  dewlap  covered  with  long  hair ; 
on  the  upper  part  of  the  forehead  stands  a  tuft  of  hair  erect ; 
the  ears  are  long  and  pointed ;  though  the  body  is  of  a  thick 
robust  form  the  legs  are  slender  and  elegant ;  the  horns  are 
generally  about  two  feet  long,  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  gene- 
rally twisted  in  various  ways,  according  to  the  species ;  the 
hoofs  are  short  and  surrounded  at  their  junction  with  the  leg 
with  a  circle  of  black  hairs.  These  Ruminantia  are  nearly 
altogether  natives  of  the  Old  Continent;  some  have  been 
found  in  the  prairies  of  North  America.  Their  disposition 


54  MAMMALIA. 

is  mild  and  sociable ;  they  live  in  herds ;  some  having  five 
thousand  in  number  are  occasionally  met  with  in  Africa. 

GENUS  CAPRA,  Lin.     Goat. 

Horns  directed  Upwards  and  backwards ;  chin  usually 
furnished  with  a  long  beard ;  forehead  almost  always  con- 
cave. 

GENUS  Ovis,  Lin.     Sheep. 

Horns  directed  backwards,  but  inclining  spirally  more  or 
less  forwards ;  forehead  generally  convex;  no  beard. 

GENUS  Bos,  Lin.     Ox. 

Horns  directed  laterally,  inclining  upwards  or  forwards  in 
the  form  of  a  crescent ;  muzzle  broad ;  body  short,  thick  and 
high  ;  legs  robust ;  a  dewlap  ;  nails  behind  the  hoof. 


ORDER  IX.     CETACEA. 

The  grand  classical  characters  which  nature  has  imprinted 
on  the  cetaceous  order  will,  in  a  philosophical  view,  vindicate 
their  arrangement  among  the  Mammalia.  Their  internal 
structure  agrees,  in  every  respect,  with  that  of  the  Mammalia 
of  Cuvier ;  and  their  external  conformation  also  is  in  some 
other  parts  similar.  Being  destitute  of  gills,  they  breathe  by 
means  of  lungs,  which  obliges  them  frequently  to  rise  to  the 
surface  of  the  water  for  fresh  air.  Another  great  resemblance 
to  the  Mammalia  is  their  having  warm  blood  and  being  pro- 
vided with  mammse,  with  which  they  suckle  their  young,  pro- 
tecting them  with  parental  attachment. 

Body  fish-formed,  terminated  by  a  horizontal  fin,  in  place 
of  posterior  limbs.  The  anterior  limbs  likewise  arranged  as 
fins ;  toes  enveloped  in  a  covering,  and  without  nails ;  some 
vestige  of  a  pelvis,  without  articulation  to  the  vertebral  co- 
lumn. 

The  cervical  portion  of  the  dorsal  spine  very  short;  skin 
smooth  and  more  or  less  thick;  no  ears  externally,  nor  movable 
eyelids,  nor  lachrymal  apparatus;  eyes  large;  crystalline  sur- 
face very  much  convex ;  habitation  in  the  sea.  Two  fami- 
lies. 


MAMMALIA.  55 

4- 

FAMILY  I.     HERBIVOROUS  CETACEA. 

No  blow-holes ;  pectoral  mammae ;  mustachios  of  hair ;  an- 
terior fins  serving  for  prehension ;  molars  with  flat  crowns ; 
sometimes  tusks.  One  remarkable  genus. 

MANATUS,  Cuv.     The  Lamantins. 

Manati  or  Cow  Whales  have  an  oblong  body;  molar  teeth, 
marked  with  two  transverse  ridges  upon  their  crowns;  no 
canines  in  adult  age ;  some  traces  of  nails  upon  the  end  of  the 
pectoral  fins ;  skin  very  thick  and  naked ;  mustachios  very 
strong  and  close. 

FAMILY  II.     CETACEA  ORDINARIA.     BLOWERS. 

Conical  teeth,  or  none ;  no  vestige  of  hair;  nostrils  opening 
without,  on  the  top  of  the  head,  very  far  from  the  end  of  the 
muzzle ;  nasal  fosses  so  arranged  as  to  permit  them  to  reject 
by  these  openings  the  water  which  they  take  with  their  prey 
into  their  enormous  mouth.  Four  genera. 

GENUS  I.     DOLPHINUS,  Lin. 

The  general  features  which  distinguish  the  Dolphins  are 
simple  and  few.  They  have  teeth  in  both  jaws,  all  simple, 
and  almost  always  conical ;  these  are  the  most  carnivorous 
and  the  most  cruel  of  the  order ;  a  dorsal  fin  always  single ; 
snout  considerably  elongated,  broad  at  the  base,  round  at  the 
extremity ,resembling  the  bill  of  a  Goose. 

GENUS  II.     MONODON,  Lin.     Narwhals. 

The  Narwhal  has  no  true  teeth  in  either  jaw ;  but  in  the 
upper  are  found  the  distinguishing  characters  of  the  genus, 
two  long,  straight  and  pointed  tusks,  like  spears,  spirally 
twisted,  implanted  in  the  maxillary  bone,  and  directed  to  the 
front. 

Pectorals  remarkably  small  for  so  large  an  animal,  no  dor- 
sal fin,  head  about  one  seventh  part  of  its  whole  length. 

GENUS  III.     PHYSETER,  Lin.     Cachalots. 

Under  this  genus  we  describe  the  Cachalot  or  Spermaceti 
Whale.  Head  enormous  and  nearly  square  and  generally 
one-third  of  its  whole  body ;  snout  very  obtuse  and  truncated; 
lower  jaw  very  narrow,  containing  teeth,  none  in  the  upper 


56  MAMMALIA. 

jaw ;  blow  hole  twelve  inches  long  in  the  form  of  an  f,  on 
the  anterior  extremity  of  the  head;  pectorals  small  and  ob- 
tuse; head  divided  into  cavities  or  cells  communicating  with 
each  other,  filled  with  oil  which  is  fluid  when  the  animal  is 
living,  when  dead  takes  the  concrete  form  which  we  deno- 
minate spermaceti. 

GENUS  IV.     PHOCCENA,  Cuv. 

The  Porpoise  is  of  all  the  Cetacea  perhaps  best  known  to 
us.  We  shall  give  the  general  description  in  the  words  of 
Cuvier.  "  It  has  absolutely  no  hair,  not  even  eyelashes.  Its 
skin  is  perfectly  smooth,  and  its  scarf  skin  is  soft  to  the  touch 
and  easily  detached.  It  has  no  lips  properly  so  called ;  but 
the  skin,  always  sleek  and  black,  is  somewhat  strengthened 
at  its  union  with  the  gums.  The  eye  is  small  and  situated 
nearly  in  the  line  of  the  opening  of  the  mouth ;  the  eyelids 
are  soft  and  have  very  little  play;  their  internal  surface  is 
moistened  with  mucus,  but  there  are  no  puncta  lacrymalia, 
and  consequently  no  tears.  The  iris  is  yellowish ;  the  pupil 
in  form  of  a  v  reversed.  The  opening  to  the  ear  is  not  larger 
than  the  point  of  a  pin;  that  of  the  blowhole  is  placed  on  the 
top  of  the  head  between  the  eyes,  resembling  a  crescent.  No 
osseous  parts  in  either  tail  or  dorsal  fin,  but  composed  almost 
wholly  of  fat," 

GFNUS  V.     BALCENA,  Lin.     Whales. 

Resembling  in  size  and  appearance  the  Cachalots,  but  the 
head  not  so  much  enlarged  in  front;  no  teeth.  The  two 
sides  of  the  upper  jaw  are  armed  with  transverse  laminae 
called  whalebone;  lower  jaw  unarmed.  Live  upon  Worms, 
Mollusca  and  Zoophytes.  One  species  (B.  Mysticetus)  af- 
fords the  whale  oil  of  commerce. 


57 


AVES. 


Birds  are  oviparous  Vertebrata  with  a  double  circulation 
and  respiration,  organized  for  flight. 

The  lungs,  which  are  not  separated  from  the  abdomen  by 
a  perfect  diaphragm,  are  undivided,  fixed  to  the  ribs,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  membrane  pierced  with  large  holes,  so  that  the 
air  passes  into  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  the  abdomen,  the  arm- 
pits and  even  into  the  cavities  of  the  bones,  which  are  hollow. 

Their  anterior  extremities  cannot  serve  either  for  standing 
or  prehension;  they  are  consequently  bipeds,  and  take  their 
food  by  means  of  the  mouth.  The  two  clavicles  are  joined 
together  and  form  what  is  called  the  fourchette.  This,  with 
the  projections  of  the  scapula,  keeps  the  shoulders  asunder. 
The  wing  supported  by  the  humerus,  the  fore  arm  and  the 
enlarged  hand,  has  throughout  its  length  a  range  of  elastic 
feathers  which  offer  a  large  surface  of  resistance  to  the  air. 
The  feathers  of  the  hand,  always  ten  in  number,  are  called 
primaries ;  of  the  fore  arm,  varying  in  number,  secondaries ; 
of  the  humerus,  which  are  less  strong,  scapularies ;  those  of 
the  thumb  bastards.  The  bony  tail  is  very  short,  but  sup- 
ports a  range  of  strong  feathers  from  twelve  to  eighteen  in 
number.  The  weaker  feathers  ranged  along  the  base  of  the 
quills  are  called  the  wing  and  tail  coverts. 

The  legs  have  a  femur,  a  tibia  and  fibula,  a  tarsus  and 
metatarsus  represented  by  a  single  bone  terminated  by  three 
pullies  and  to  which  are  attached  commonly  three  toes  and  a 
thumb.  There  are  also  certain  muscles  attached  to  the  pel- 
vis and  passing  over  the  knee  and  heel  to  the  toes,  so  that 
the  weight  of  the  body  suffices  to  flex  them  and  thus  allows 
the  bird  to  sleep  perched  upon  its  feet. 

H 

• 


58  AVES. 

ORDER  I.     RAPACE./E.* 

Beak  bent  at  the  extremity ;  upper  mandible  dilated  on 
each  side,  or  armed  with  a  tooth ;  feet  robust,  short,  with 
three  toes  before  and  one  behind,  armed  with  claws  gene- 
rally sharp;  sternum  without  lateral  slopes.  The  species 
comprised  under  this  head  are  voracious  and  cruel ;  they  are 
among  Birds,  what  the  Carnivora  are  among  Quadrupeds ; 
they  live  on  prey  or  carrion,  and  construct  their  nests,  called 
eyries,  in  elevated  places ;  lay  generally  three  or  four  eggs  ; 
they  are  monogamous.  Two  families. 

FAMILY  I.     DIURNAL  BIRDS. 

Head  compressed  laterally ;  eyes  situated  at  the  sides  ; 
toes  without  feathers;  exterior  toe  always  directed  to  the 
front,  and  most  frequently  united  by  its  base  to  the  middle 
toe  by  the  aid  of  a  small  membrane ;  nostrils  pierced  in  a 
membrane  called  the  cera ;  stomach  almost  altogether  mem- 
branous ;  intestines  short.  Three  tribes. 

TRIBE  I.     VULTUR,  LIN.     VULTURES. 

Eyes  even  with  the  head ;  the  tarsi  reticulated,  that  is  to 
say,  covered  with  small  scales;  an  elongated  beak  curved 
only  at  the  end ;  a  greater  or  less  portion  of  the  head  and 
neck  divested  of  feathers;  wings  so  long  that  in  walking 
they  hold  them  half  extended ;  talons  feeble  in  proportion  to 
their  size.  Four  genera. 

GENUS  VULTUR,  Cuv.     Vulture  proper. 

Head  and  neck  naked ;  collar  of  long  feathers  and  down 
at  the  root  of  the  neck ;  beak  large  and  strong  ;  nostrils  dis- 
posed transversely  at  its  base ;  no  caruncles  (a  kind  of  fleshy 
excrescence).  [Old  Continent.] 

GENUS  SARCORAMPHUS,  Dura. 

Base  of  the  beak  surmounted  with  caruncles ;  nostrils  oval 
and  longitudinal.  [America  only.] 

*  Birds  of  prey. 


AVES.  59 

GENUS  CATHARTES. 

Beak  as  in  the  preceding,  wide  and  with  oval  and  longi- 
tudinal nostrils,  but  no  caruncles;  head  and  neck  naked. 

GENUS  PERCNOPTERUS. 

Beak  long,  slender  and  slightly  inflated  above  its  curva- 
ture; nostrils  oval  and  longitudinal ;  only  the  head  naked. 

TRIBE  II.     GYPACTOS,  STORR.     GRIFFINS. 

Eyes  and  talons  as  in  the  preceding ;  head  entirely  co- 
vered with  feathers ;  beak  very  strong  and  straight,  with  a 
crook  at  the  end,  and  inflated  at  the  curve;  nostrils  covered 
by  stiff  hairs  directed  forwards ;  tarsi  short  and  feathered  to 
the  toes.  One  species  only. 

TRIBE  III.     FALCO,  LIN.     FALCONS. 

Head  and  neck  clothed  in  feathers ;  a  projection  of  the 
eyebrows,  causing  the  eye  to  appear  sunk  ;  blood-thirsty  and 
endowed  with  a  strength  which  permits  them  to  satisfy  their 
insatiable  appetite ;  the  female  is  larger  than  the  male,  and 
on  this  account  is  called,  in  falconry,  the  tarsel  or  tiersel. 
The  Falcons  are  the  tyrants  of  the  air ;  it  is  among  them 
that  poetry  has  chosen  the  king  of  Birds.  Two  sections. 

Section  I.     Noble  Birds  of  Prey. 

Beak  curved  from  its  base  ;  second  quill  of  the  wing  the 
longest.  Two  genera. 

GENUS  FALCO,  Bechst.     Falcon  proper. 

Upper  mandible  armed  with  a  strong  tooth  towards  the 
point ;  wings  as  long  or  longer  than  the  tail. 

GENUS  HIEROFALCO,  Cuv.     Gerfalcon. 

A  simple  emargination  of  the  beak ;  tail  long  and  displayed, 
extending  remarkably  beyond  the  wings. 

Section  II.     Ignoble  Birds  of  Prey. 

Fourth  quill  of  the  wing  generally  the  longest;  beak 
furnished  about  its  middle  with  a  simple  emargination  in 
place  of  a  lateral  tooth  towards  its  point.  Four  remarkable 
genera. 


60  AVES. 

GENUS  AQUILA,  Briss.     Eagle. 

Tarsus  as  short,  or  but  little  longer,  than  the  middle  toe ; 
beak  straight  at  the  base,  and  bending  only  at  the  point. 
Two  remarkable  subgenera — the  Eagle  proper,  Aquila,  Cuv., 
which  has  the  tarsus  feathered  down  to  the  root  of  the  toes, 
and  the  Fisher  Eagle,  Halisetos,  Savig.,  which  has  the  tarsus 
feathered  only  in  the  upper  half. 

•"  /  **         ••  ' 

GENUS  ASTUR,  Bechst.     Goshawk  and  Sparrowhawk. 

Wings  shorter  than  the  tail;  but  the  beak  curved  from  its 
base. 

GENUS  MILVUS,  Bechst.     Kite. 

Tail  forked;  wings  excessively  long;  beak  small;  tarsi 
short ;  nails  feeble. 

GENUS  BUTEO,  Bechst.     Buzzard. 

Wings  very  long;  tail  equal ;  feet  strong  ;  interval  between 
the  eyes  and  beak  naked ;  the  beak  curved  from  its  base  as 
in  the  preceding. 

FAMILY  II.     NOCTURNAL  BIRDS. 

Large  head ;  eyes  very  large,  directed  forwards  and  sur- 
rounded with  a  circle  of  fringed  feathers,  the  anterior  of  which 
cover  the  cera  of  the  beak,  and  the  posterior  the  opening  of 
the  ear ;  pupil  of  the  eye  very  large ;  exterior  toe  of  the  foot 
free,  and  capable  of  being  directed  at  will  forwards  or  back- 
wards; apparatus  of  flight  weak;  fourchette  having  little 
strength ;  feathers  with  soft  beards  covered  with  fine  down. 
Form  but  one  genus. 

GENUS  STRIX,  Lin. 

They  may  be  divided  by  their  tufts,  the  size  of  their  ears 
and  the  extent  of  the  circle  of  feathers  around  their  eyes. 

SBBGENUS  OTUS,  Cuv.     Horned  Owls. 

Have  two  tufts  of  feathers  (aigrettes)  on  the  forehead  which 
they  can  erect  at  will ;  the  conch  of  the  ear  extending  in  a 
semicircle  from  the  beak  to  the  top  of  the  head ;  beak  curved ; 
feet  feathered  to  the  nails. 


AVES.  61 

SUBGENUS  STRIX,  Sav.     Screech  Owl. 

Ear  as  large  as  in  the  former ;  beak  straight,  bent  only 
towards  the  end  ;  no  aigrettes  on  the  head ;  tarsi  feathered. 

SUBGENUS  SYRNIUM. 

Conch  small  and  not  occupying  the  half  of  the  height  of 
the  cranium ;  no  aigrettes ;  feet  feathered  to  the  nails. 

SUBGENUS  BUBO. 

Conch  small ;  aigrettes. 

SUBGENUS  NOCTUA,  Savig.     Chouette. 

Ears  level  with  the  head ;  no  aigrettes ;  circle  of  feathers 
small ;  toes  naked. 

SUBGENUS  SCOPS. 

Ears  level  with  the  head ;  aigrettes ;  naked  toes. 


ORDER  II.     PASSERINE. 

Four  toes,  three  before  and  one  behind,  which  distinguishes 
them  from  the  Climbers ;  tarsi  weak  and  short,  which  sepa- 
rates them  from  the  Waders ;  exterior  toes  united  by  a  short 
membrane,  which  removes  them  from  the  Palmipedes.  The 
character  of  the  beak  and  nails,  joined  with  the  preceding, 
separates  them  from  Birds  of  Prey.  The  stomach  is  a  mus- 
cular gizzard.  Length  of  wing  and  extent  of  flight  variable. 
Sternum  has  a  single  notch  on  each  side,  except  in  some 
genera,  where  there  are  two.  Food  consists  of  fruits,  insects, 
grain,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  beak.  Five  families, 
of  which  the  four  first  include  birds  whose  exterior  toes  are 
only  united  by  one  or  by  two  phalanges.  Plate  17  only  con- 
tains the  two  first. 

FAMILY  I.     DENTIROSTRES. 

Beak  notched  on  both  sides  of  the  point.  Ten  remarkable 
genera  distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  bill. 


62  AVES. 

GENUS  LANIUS.     Shrike. 

Beak  very  much  compressed,  and  more  or  less  bent  towards 
the  end.  Toes  entirely  free.  An  ardent  and  courageous 
temper,  which  urges  them  to  contests  where  they  frequently 
expire  in  the  clutches  of  a  dying  enemy. 

GENUS  MUSCICAPA,  Lin.     Fly- Catcher. 

Beak  depressed  horizontally;  more  or  less  curved  and 
notched  at  the  point,  and  furnished  with  hairs  at  the  base. 

GENUS  AMPELIS,  Lin.     Crown-Bird. 

Beak  short,  depressed,  wide  and  slightly  arched .  A  brilliant 
plumage  generally  decks  these  timid  and  taciturn  birds ;  they 
inhabit  the  warm  regions  of  America. 

GENUS  TAN  AGRA,  Lin.     Tanager. 

Beak  conical,  triangular  at  base  and  notched,  with  the 
ridge  arched.  Wings  short.  They  inhabit  America,  and 
are  remarkable  for  the  brilliancy  of  their  colours. 

GENUS  TURDUS,  Lin.     Thrush. 

Beak  compressed  and  arcuated,  but  without  the  crook  at 
the  point,  which  is  also  less  strongly  indented  than  in  the 
Shrikes.  Two  subgenera,  the  Thrush  proper  and  the  Spotted 
Thrush.  The  former  has  its  colour  uniform  or  distributed  in 
large  masses ;  the  latter  has  the  plumage  speckled  with  black 
and  brown. 

GENUS  ORIOLUS,  Lin.     Orioles. 

Beak  like  the  thrush,  but  somewhat  stronger;  feet  shorter; 
wings  a  little  longer. 

GENUS  CINCLUS,  Bechst.     Water-Thrush. 

Beak  compressed  and  straight,  with  mandibles  of  an  equal 
height,  nearly  linear,  and  growing  sharp  towards  the  point, 
the  upper  one  hardly  arcuated. 

GENUS  MJSNURA.     Lyra. 

Beak  slightly  compressed  and  notched ;  nails  obtuse  and 
long  like  fingers ;  males  have  a  long  tail  with  plumes  in  the 
form  of  a  lyre. 

GENUS  MOTACILLA.     Warbler. 

Beak  straight,  fine,  and  resembling  a  bodkin.  Three  re- 
markable subgenera;  the  Fauvettes  with  the  beak  straight  and 


AVJSS.  63 

slim  throughout ;  the  Wren  with  a  beak  perfectly  conical  and 
pointed,  and  the  Meadow-Larks  with  a  slim  beak,  and  the 
nail  of  the  thumb  very  long. 

GENUS  PIPRA,  Lin.     Manakin. 

A  compressed  bill  higher  than  broad,  and  emarginated ; 
tail  and  feet  short ;  two  external  toes  united  at  the  base  for 
one-third  their  length.  Two  subgenera. 

SUBGENUS  RUPICOLA,  Briss.     Cock  of  the  Rock. 

Large  and  beautiful  birds,  having  a  double  vertical  crest 
on  the  head. 

SUBGENUS  PIPRA,  Cuv.    Manakins proper. 

Small  birds  remarkable  for  their  lively  colours ;  no  crest. 

FAMILY  II.     FISSIROSTRES. 

Beak  short,  broad,  flattened  horizontally,  slightly  crooked, 
without  notches,  and  with  an  extended  commissure.  Two 
remarkable  genera,  one  nocturnal,  the  other  diurnal. 

GENUS  CAPRIMULGUS,  Lin.     Goatsucker. 

Mouth  excessively  large ;  beak  depressed,  very  small, 
curved  at  the  end,  garnished  with  strong  mustachios;  nos- 
trils in  the  form  of  small  tubes.  These  solitary  birds  only 
fly  during  twilight,  or  upon  fine  nights,  and  pursue  Phalense 
and  other  nocturnal  insects. 

GENUS  HIRUNDO.     Swallow. 

Wings  very  long;  flight  rapid  ;  plumage  thick ;  flight  di- 
urnal. They  are  remarkable  for  their  industry  in  building 
their  nests.  Two  subgenera — the  Swallow  proper,  which  has 
the  toes  of  the  feet  as  in  the  other  Passerinse,  and  the  sternum 
notched;  and  the  Martinet,  which  has  wings  excessively 
long ;  a  very  powerful  flight ;  tail  always  forked  ;  feet  very 
short ;  the  thumb  capable  of  turning  forward  as  the  other 
toes;  and  no  notch  in  the  sternum. 

FAMILY  III.     CONIROSTRES. 

.•:.;•'-';    •'••  ;    v*V    ;  >;.  *-'.W-  -<-^-~  ^-i*-r  ''^.4  •.-•,;  ^;v*v 
Beak  strong,  more  or  less  conical,  and  without  emargina- 
tion.     Six  remarkable  genera. 


64  AVES. 

GENUS  ALAUDA,  Lin.     Lark. 

Beak  cylindrical ;  toes  entirely  free ;  nail  of  the  thumb 
longer  than  the  thumb  itself;  regimen  granivorous. 

GENUS  PARUS,  Lin.     Titmouse, 

Beak  compressed,  slender  and  short,  furnished  with  short 
hairs  at  the  base;  nail  of  the  thumb  much  curved;  regimen 
omnivorous. 

GENUS  EMBERIZA,  Lin.     Bunting. 

Beak  short,  with  the  upper  mandible  narrowest  and  pro- 
vided with  a  projecting  tubercle  on  the  palate ;  regimen  gra- 
nivorous. 

GENUS  FRINGILLA.     Sparrow. 

Beak  conical  and  more  or  less  thick  at  base;  they  live 
generally  on  grain.  The  Sparrows  proper,  have  the  beak 
short,  conical  and  a  little  inflated  towards  the  point.  There 
are  two  remarkable  subgenera — the  Finch  whose  beak  is 
somewhat  less  arcuated  than  that  of  the  Sparrow,  and 
stronger  than  that  of  the  Linnet — and  the  Linnet  which  has 
the  beak  exactly  conical  without  being  inflated.  Those  are 
called  Goldfinches  which  have  the  beak  a  little  longer  and 
more  pointed.  The  species  which  are  more  or  less  greenish 
are  called  Tarins  or  Serins  by  the  French. 

GENUS  CORVUS,  Lin.     Crow. 

Beak  straight  and  strong,  with  trenchant  edges;  nostrils 
covered  with  stiff  feathers. 

SUBGENUS  CORAX,  CUV.      Raven. 

Tail  rounded  or  square ;  upper  mandible  arcuated. 

SUBGENUS  PICA,  Cuv.     Pie. 

Tail  long  and  cuneiform ;  upper  mandible  arcuated. 

SUBGENUS  GARRULUS,  Cuv.    Jay. 

Tail  displayed,  but  little  elongated ;  the  two  mandibles  ter- 
minated by  a  sudden  curve. 

GENUS  PARADISJEA.     Birds  of  Paradise. 

Beak  of  medium  size ;  nostrils  covered  with  velvet  feathers ; 
feathers  of  the  sides  plumose,  singularly  developed. 

The  velvet  and  metallic  appearance  which  so  beautifully 
distinguishes  these  birds,  and  which,  from  its  exceeding 


AVES.  65 

splendour,  has  given  rise  to  the  "  Bird  of  Paradise,"  is  attri- 
buted to  the  influence  of  the  climate  they  inhabit.  This 
influence  has  been  noticed  in  several  other  genera.  They 
are  natives  of  New  Guinea  and  the  adjoining  islands,  and 
are  usually  procured  by  Europeans  from  the  savages  of 
those  regions,  who  prepare  the  birds  for  sale  by  cutting  off 
the  wings  and  feet.  This  circumstance  has  given  rise  to  the 
common  idea  that  they  were  really  destitute  of  those  mem- 
bers, and  supported  themselves  always  in  the  air.  They 
live  on  fruit  and  are  extravagantly  fond  of  spices. 

FAMILY  IV.     TENUIROSTRES. 

Beak  slim,  elongated,  without  emargination,  sometimes 
straight,  sometimes  more  or  less  arcuated.  Three  remark- 
able genera. 

GENUS  SITTA,  Lin.     Nuthatch. 

Beak  straight,  prismatic,  pointed,  and  serving  the  same 
purposes  as  the  Woodpecker's.  Tongue  not  extensible ; 
nostrils,  upon  close  inspection,  seem  to  be  covered  with  hair; 
quills  of  the  tail  of  no  support  in  the  action  of  climbing. 

GENUS  CERTHIA,  Lin.     Creeper. 

Beak  arcuated  at  three  angles,  compressed  and  pointed; 
tongue  entire ;  nostrils  half  closed  by  an  arched  membrane. 
Quills  of  the  tail  serving  to  climb. 

GENUS  TROCHILUS,  Lin.     Humming-Bird. 

Beak  long,  slim,  straight  or  arcuated,  and  tubulous.  Tongue 
extensible  and  split  almost  to  its  base.  The  subgenus  Ortho- 
rhynchus  has  the  beak  straight.  The  subgenus  Trochilus^ 
proper  has  it  arcuated.  These  birds,  like  the  Birds  of  Para- 
dise, are  celebrated  for  the  metallic  lustre  of  their  plumage, 
and,  especially,  for  a  species  of  laminae  as  brilliant  as  precious 
stones,  which  are  formed  by  a  peculiar  kind  of  scaly  feather 
on  the  throat  and  head.  The  split  tongue  is  protruded  to  a 
great  length,  and  employed  in  taking  up  the  nectar  of  flowers. 
They  feed  also  on  small  Insects,  of  which  the  stomach  is  fre- 
quently found  to  be  full.  Their  very  small  feet,  long  and 
narrow  wings,  displayed  tail,  short  humerus  and  broad  ster- 
num without  emargination,  give  them  extraordinary  powers 
i 


66  AVES. 

of  flight.  Their  rapidity  is  proportionally  greater  than  that 
of  any  other  bird,  and  they  balance  themselves  in  the  air  with 
nearly  as  much  ease  as  certain  flies.  They  live  singly  and 
are  exceedingly  courageous. 

FAMILY  V.     SYNDACTIL^E. 

Exterior  toe  nearly  as  long  as  the  middle  one,  to  which  it 
is  united  as  far  as  the  penultimate  articulation.  Three  re- 
markable genera. 

GENUS  ALCEDO,  Lin.     King-Fisher. 

Beak  triangular,  long,  straight  and  nearly  pointed;  tail 
very  short,  [Both  Continents.] 

GENUS  MEROPS,  Lin.     Bee-Eater. 

Beak  elongated,  arcuated  and  trenchant,  with  an.  elevated 
ridge ;  feet  very  short.  [Old  Continent.] 

GENUS  BUCEROS,  Lin.     Hornbill. 

Beak  enormous,  dentated,  cellular  and  surmounted  with  a 
prominence  or  with  a  simple  swelling,  varying  with  the  age. 
[India  and  Africa.] 


ORDER  III.     SCANSORLE.* 

External  toe  directed  backwards  like  the  thumb,  whence 
results  to  them  a  more  solid  support,  of  which  certain  genera 
take  advantage  in  clinging  to  and  climbing  upon  trees ; 
sternum  presenting  nearly  always  two  emarginations  behind; 
flight  middling;  regimen  fructivorous  or  insectivorous,  ac- 
cording as  the  beak  is  more  or  less  robust ;  they  build  their 
nests  in  the  trunks  of  old  trees.  Five  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  Picus,  Lin.     Woodpecker. 

Beak  long,  straight,  angular,  the  end  compressed  into  a 
wedge,  and  fitted  for  splitting  the  bark  of  trees;  tongue 
slender,  armed  near  the  tip  with  spines  that  curve  backward, 
and  capable  of  being  thrust  far  out  of  the  beak ;  tail  com- 

*  Climbers. 


AVES.  67 

posed  of  ten  quills,  with  stiff  and  elastic  stems,  which  sustain 
them  as  a  prop  while  climbing  trees. 

GENUS  YUNX,  Lin.     Wryneck. 

Tongue  extensible  as  in  the  Woodpeckers,  but  without 
spines ;  beak  straight,  pointed,  nearly  round  and  without  an- 
gles ;  their  tail  has  only  the  ordinary  feathers ;  they  live 
nearly  like  the  Woodpecker,  but  climb  little. 

GENUS  CUOULUS,  Lin.     Cuckoo. 

Beak  middling,  well  cleft,  compressed  and  slightly  arcuated ; 
tail  long ;  regimen  insectivorous ;  birds  of  passage.  The 
female  of  the  true  Cuckoo  builds  no  nest  in  which  to  depo- 
sit her  eggs,  but  abandons  them  in  the  nest  of  some  other 
species,  which  hatches  them  with  its  own  ;  the  others  build 
for  themselves. 

GENUS  RHAMPHASTOS,  Lin.     Toucan. 

Beak  voluminous,  nearly  as  large  as  the  bird,  light  and 
nearly  cellular  within,  arcuated  near  the  end,  irregularly  in- 
dented along  the  edges ;  tongue  long,  narrow  and  furnished 
on  each  side  with  barbs  like  a  feather.  They  are  only  found 
in  the  tropical  countries  of  America.  The  front  of  their  neck 
is  generally  decked  with  vivid  colours,  and  its  feathers  were 
formerly  often  employed  in  the  dress  of  French  and  Ameri- 
can ladies. 

--.,.."  .  ,.  •*" 

GENUS  PSITTACUS.     Parrot. 

Beak  stout,  hard,  solid,  rounded  on  all  sides,  and  enve- 
loped at  base  by  a  membrane  in  which  the  nostrils  are 
pierced;  tongue  thick,  fleshy  and  rounded — two  circum- 
stances which  give  them  the  greatest  facility  in  imitating  the 
human  voice;  the  inferior  larynx  somewhat  complicated; 
their  food  consists  of  all  kinds  of  fruit ;  they  climb  among 
the  branches  of  trees  with  the  aid  of  their  beak  and  claws ; 
build  in  the  trunks  of  trees ;  have  a  voice  naturally  harsh 
and  disagreeable ;  they  are  almost  always  adorned  with  the 
most  lively  plumage  ;  hardly  any  of  them  are  found  beyond 
the  torrid  zone ;  there  are  some,  however,  in  both  conti- 
nents. They  congregate  in  forests,  where  they  make  great 
havock. 


68  AVES. 

SUBGENUS  ARA.     Maccaw. 

Tail  displayed  and  long  ;  cheeks  without  feathers.    [Ame- 
rica.] 

SUBGENUS  PAROQUET. 

Tail  long;  cheeks  feathered ;  a  naked  space  around  the  eye. 

SCBGENUS  COCKATOO. 

Tail  short,  equal  or  squared ;  cheeks  feathered ;  a  movable 
crest. 

SUBGENUS  PAROQUET  PROPER. 

Tail  equally  cuneiform ;  no  crest. 

SUBGENUS  TRUMPET  PAROQUET. 

.  Tail  short  and  square ;  a  crest ;  cheeks  denuded ;  upper 
beak  enormous. 


ORDER  IV.     GALLINACE.E. 

Upper  mandible  arched ;  nostrils  pierced  in  a  large  mem- 
branous space  at  the  base  of  the  beak,  and  covered  by  a  car- 
tilaginous scale ;  a  heavy  carriage  ;  short  wings  ;  the  bony 
sternum  diminished  by  two  emarginations  so  wide  and  deep 
that  they  occupy  nearly  the  whole  sides ;  fourchette  articu- 
lated by  a  simple  ligament ;  flight  feeble ;  anterior  toes 
united  at  base  by  a  short  membrane,  and  indented  throughout. 
The  Pigeons  and  another  genus  are  the  only  kind  which  have 
not  this  membrane ;  their  usual  food  is  grain ;  crop  extremely 
large,  and  gizzard  vigorous. 

GENUS  PAVO,  Lin.     Peacock. 

An  aigrette  or  crest  on  the  head  ;  beak  naked  at  its  base  ; 
the  coverts  of  the  tail  of  the  males  more  elongated  than  the 
quills,  and  capable  of  being  erected  so  as  to  form  a  wheel. 
The  domestic  Peacock  is  a  native  of  India,  and  was  brought 
thence  by  Alexander. 

GENUS  ALECTOR,  Merr.     Hocco. 

Beak  robust,  with  the  upper  mandible  the  longest,  bent, 
and  surrounded  with  a  skin  where  the  nostrils  are  pierced  ; 
head  crested ;  no  spur. 


AVES.  69 

GENUS  MELEAORIS,  Lin.     Turkey. 

Head  and  upper  part  of  the  neck  invested  with  a  skin 
without  feathers,  and  papillated ;  an  appendage  under  the 
throat  and  another  conical  one  on  the  forehead ;  coverts  of 
the  tail  short  and  stiff,  capable  of  being  erected ;  weak  spurs 
on  the  males. 

GENUS  NUMIDA,  Lin.     Guinea-Fowl. 

Head  naked  and  surmounted  with  a  callous  crest ;  fleshy 
wattles  at  the  bottom  of  the  cheeks ;  tail  short  and  pendent ; 
no  spurs. 

GENUS  PHASIANUS,  Lin.     Pheasant. 

Cheeks  partially  divested  of  feathers  and  covered  with  a 
red  skin ;  feathers  of  the  tail  variously  disposed  in  the  form 
of  a  roof. 

SUBGENUS  GALLUS.     Cock. 

Head  surmounted  with  a  fleshy  vertical  crest;  inferior 
mandible  furnished  on  each  side  with  fleshy  wattles ;  quills 
of  the  tail  forming  two  vertical  planes,  back  to  back ;  a  long 
spur. 

SUBGENUS  PHEASANT  PROPER. 

Head  without  fleshy  crest ;  beak  and  cheeks  naked ;  tail 
long,  displayed,  the  quills  being  spread,  each  in  two  planes, 
one  covering  the  other  as  in  a  roof. 

"     „      "'  -^-  "•;  '.      v   .-,"'•.,  '•    '         •-.     ' 

GENUS  TETRAO. 

A  naked  band,  most  usually  red,  holding  the  place  of  an 
eyebrow.  Two  subgenera. 

SUBGENUS  TETRAO,  Lath.     Grouse. 

Feet  covered  with  feathers;  no  spurs;  toes  naked;  tail 
round  or  forked. 

SUBGENUS  LAGOPUS.     Ptarmigan. 

Toes  as  well  as  feet  covered  with  feathers ;  tail  square  or 
round. 

GENUS  PERDIX. 

Tarsi  as  well  as  toes  naked.     Four  subgenera. 

SUBGENUS  FRANCOLTNUS,  Tern. 

Beak  long  and  strong  ;  tail  enlarged  ;  spurs  strong. 


70  AVES. 

SCBGENUS  PERDIX.     Common  Partridge. 

Beak  not  so  strong ;  the  males  have  a  short  spur  or  only  a 
tubercle,  the  females  none. 

SUBGENUS  ORTYX.     American  Partridge. 

Beaker  stronger,  shorter  and  more  convex ;  tail  larger ;  no 
spurs. 

SUBGENUS  COTURNIX.     Quail. 

Beak  more  slender ;  tail  shorter ;  no  red  eyebrows ;  no 
spurs. 

GENUS  COLUMBA,  Lin.     Pigeon. 

Beak  compressed ;  arcuated  at  base  and  covered  with  a 
soft  tumid  skin  ;  toes  divided ;  flight  strong  ;  tail  composed 
of  twelve  quills  only.  .  * 

. 

ORDER  V.     GRALLATORLE.* 

.  •  •• 

Lower  part  of  the  leg  naked ;  tarsi  most  generally  elevated ; 
two  circumstances  which  permit  them  to  enter  the  water 
without  wetting  their  feathers,  to  wade  through  it,  and  fish 
by  means  of  their  neck  and  beak.  Those  which  have  the 
beak  strong,  feed  on  Fish  and  Reptiles ;  those  which  have  it 
weak,  on  Worms  and  Insects.  A  very  few  content  themselves, 
in  part,  with  grain  or  grass,  and  these  alone,  live  at  a  distance 
from  the  water.  Exterior  toe  joined  by  its  base  to  that  of  the 
middle  one  by  means  of  a  short  membrane ;  sometimes  there 
are  two  membranes  and  at  others  the  membrane  is  entirely 
wanting;  the  toes  likewise  are  sometimes  bordered  all  along 
or  palmated.  No  thumb  in  certain  genera.  Wings  usually 
long;  legs,  while  flying,  extended  behind.  Eight  families, 
of  which  three  hardly  are  entitled  to  this  name. 

FAMILY  I.     BREVIPPENNES.     SHORT-WINGED. 

Size  so  considerable  that  all  the  muscular  power  (appa- 
rently) at  the  command  of  nature  would  be  insufficient  to 
enable  them  to  fly.  Wings  very  small  and  unfit  for  flight ; 

•  •"  "'•   •"•  NJ  •*TH/^  '..-''-•,  :Si';  ' 

*  Waders. 


AVES.  71 

^  .       s 

sternum  flat,  without  ridge ;  pectoral  muscles  weak ;  those 
of  the  thigh  and  leg  enormously  thick ;  the  thumb  always 
deficient.  Two  genera. 

GENUS  STRUTHIO,  Lin.     Ostrich. 

Beak  depressed  horizontally,  of  moderate  length  and  blunt 
at  the  end ;  tongue  short,  and  rounded  like  a  crescent ;  eye 
large,  the  lid  fringed  with  lashes.  Legs  and  tarsi  very  long. 
Rapidity  of  course  greater  than  that  of  any  of  the  Mammalia; 
feet  furnished  with  two  or  three  toes,  either  all  with  nails  or 
none ;  crop  enormous,  followed  by  a  considerable  sac  between 
it  and  the  gizzard.  Africa  and  South  America. 

GENUS  CASUARIUS,  Briss.     Cassowary. 

Wings  still  shorter  than  those  of  the  Ostrich,  and  totally 
useless  even  in  running.  Feet  with  three  toes  all  furnished 
with  nails ;  barbs  of  the  feathers  so  scantily  furnished  with 
barbulse,  that  at  a  distance  they  appear  covered  with  pendent 
hair.  India  and  New  Holland. 

•'-.'.•     t,_  .-»  .  (gy  • .  f\l 

FAMILY  II.     PRESSIROSTRES. 

Long  legs,  without  thumbs,  or  with  one  so  short  as  to  be 
unable  to  reach  the  earth ;  beak  of  moderate  size  and  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  penetrate  the  earth  in  the  search  for  Worms. 
Three  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  OTIS,  Lin.     Bustard. 

Beak  nearly  straight,  and  compressed;  wings  short;  toes 
short  and  bordered  with  membranes;  no  thumbs. 

GENUS  CHARADRIUS,  Lin.     Plover. 

Beak  moderate,  enlarged  at  the  end,  and  the  nostrils  occu- 
pying one  half  to  two-thirds  of  its  length ;  no  thumb. 

GENUS  VANELLUS,  Bechst.     Lapwing. 

Same  beak  as  the  Plover,  but  a  small  thumb. 

FAMILY  III.     CULTRIROSTRES. 

Beak  thick,  long  and  strong,  generally  trenchant  and 
pointed.  Three  tribes. 


72  AVES. 

TRIBE  I. 

Beak  straight,  and  slightly  cleft;  nostrils  occupying  nearly 
one  half  its  length ;  toes  moderate,  the  external  ones  a  little 
palrnated;  thumb  very  short;  part  of  the  head  and  neck  naked. 
There  is  only  one  genus — Grus  (Crane) — but  this  has  two 
subgenera,  viz.,  Psophia,  Lin.  (Trumpeter),  where  the  beak  is 
shorter  than  in  the  other  species,  the  head  and  neck  clothed 
only  with  down,  and  the  circumference  of  the  eye  naked — and 
the  Ordinary  Crane,  where  the  beak  is  as  long  or  longer  than 
the  head. 

TRIBE  II. 

Beak  stronger ;  toes  larger.  One  remarkable  genus  only — 
that  of  the  Ardea,  Cuv.  (Heron).  Here  a  cleft  of  the  beak 
extends  to  beneath  the  eyes ;  nails  long,  the  middle  with  in- 
dented edge;  external  web  remarkable.  Three  subgenera, 
but  they  are  not  well  marked. 

SUBGENUS  TRUE  HERON. 

Neck  very  slender  and  furnished  towards  the  bottom  with 
long  pendent  feathers. 

SUBGENUS  BITTERN. 

Feathers  of  the  neck  loose  and  separated ;  beak  raised  to- 
wards the  heavens  when  at  rest. 

SUBGENUS  NIGHT-HERON. 

Port  of  the  Bittern;  beak  thicker  in  proportion;  some 
sparse  feathers  upon  the  occiput. 

TRIBE  III. 

Besides  a  beak  smoother  than  in  the  preceding,  these  have 
webs  nearly  equal  between  the  base  of  the  toes.  Two  re- 
markable genera — the  genus  Ciconia,  Cuv.  (Stork),  with  a 
beak  straight,  thick,  pointed  and  slightly  cloven — and  the 
genus  Platalea,  Lin.  (Spoon-bill)  with  a  long  beak  termi- 
nated by  a  disk  flattened  in  the  form  of  a  spatula. 

FAMILY  IV.     LONGIROSTRES. 

Beak  slender,  long  and  weak,  which  restricts  these  birds 
to  a  mere  searching  in  the  mud  for  Worms  and  Insects.  Two 


AVES.  73 

remarkable  genera.  The  genus  Scolopax,  Lin.  (Snipe)  has  a 
beak  either  curved  at  the  bottom  or  straight.  There  are  two 
subgenera. 

SUBGENUS  IBIS. 

Beak  arcuated,  slender,  obtuse  and  almost  square  at  base; 
nostrils  prolonged  into  a  furrow  which  extends  to  the  end  of 
the  beak;  head  or  neck  partially  naked;  thumb  resting  upon 
the  ground ;  external  toes  remarkably  palmated. 

SUBGENUS  SCOLOPAX,  Cuv.     Snipe  proper. 

Beak  long  and  straight  with  the  point  inflated ;  feet  with- 
out web ;  large  eyes  placed  very  much  behind. 

SUBGENUS  LIMOSA,  Bechst.     Godwit. 

Beak  like  the  Snipe  but  longer ;  legs  longer ;  feet  palmated. 
Sea  shore  Birds. 

GENUS  RECURVIROSTRA,  Lin.     Avoset. 

Beak  long,  thin,  pointed,  smooth,  elastic  and  curved  up- 
wards ;  feet  webbed  to  near  the  ends  of  the  toes. 

FAMILY  V.     MACRODACTYLI. 

Toes  very  long  and  fit  for  running  upon  grass  and  marshy 
ground,  or  even  for  swimming,  especially  in  those  species 
where  they  are  bordered  with  a  membrane,  without  being 
webbed.  Sternum  narrow.  Three  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  PARRA,  Lin. 

Wings  armed  with  a  spur;  four  long  toes  divided  down  to 
the  root  with  extremely  long  and  pointed  nails,  a  peculiarity 
from  which  they  have  received  the  name  of  Surgeons.  Asia 
and  South  America. 

GENUS  RALLUS.     Rail. 

Wings  unarmed ;  beak  straight  or  moderately  curved,  cy- 
lindrical at  the  point,  without  frontal  plate.  Toes  not  bor- 
dered. 

GENUS  FULICA,  Lin.     Coot. 

Wings  unarmed;   beak  prolonged  into  a  kind  of  shield 
which  covers  the  forehead.     Three  subgenera. 
K 


74  AVES. 

SUBGENUS  GALLINULA,  Briss.     Water-Hen. 

Beak  as  in  the  Rail,  but  a  frontal  shield,  and  very  long 
toes  furnished  with  a  narrow  border. 

SUBGENUS  PORPHYRIO. 

Beak  higher  in  proportion  to  its  length ;  toes  very  long 
and  almost  without  border. 

SUBGENUS  FULICA.     True  Coot. 

Short  beak  and  large  frontal  shield;  toes  greatly  widened  by 
a  festooned  border,  which  renders  them  excellent  swimmers. 

FAMILY  VI.     VAGINALIS,  LATH.     SHEATH-BILL. 

Legs  short;  tarsi  scutellated;  beak  thick,  and  upon  its  base 
a  hard  substance  which  the  bird  has  the  power  of  raising  and 
depressing. 

FAMILY  VII.     GLAREOLA. 

Beak  short,  conical,  arcuated  throughout  and  strongly 
cleft;  wings  very  long  and  pointed;  tail  often  forked.  Legs 
of  moderate  height ;  external  toes  somewhat  palmated. 

FAMILY  VIII.    PHCENICOPTERUS,  LIN.     FLAMINGO. 

Legs  excessively  long ;  the  three  anterior  toes  palmated  to 
the  ends,  the  hind  one  extremely  short ;  neck  not  less  slim, 
nor  shorter  than  than  the  legs ;  head  small ;  a  beak  whose 
lower  mandible  is  an  oval,  longitudinally  grooved  into  a  semi- 
cylindrical  canal,  while  the  upper  one,  oblong  and  flat,  is 
bent  crosswise  in  its  middle  so  as  to  join  the  other  exactly. 
They  live  on  Shellfish,  Insects  and  Fish. 


ORDER  VI.     PALMIPEDES. 

Feet  formed  for  swimming,  that  is  to  say,  placed  far  back 
on  the  body,  attached  to  short  and  compressed  tarsi,  and 
palmated  between  the  toes  ;  plumage  dense,  glossy,  saturated 


AVES.  75 

with  oil,  garnished  next  the  skin  with  a  thick  down,  and  in- 
tended to  protect  them  from  the  water  in  which  they  live  ; 
length  of  neck  often  much  exceeding  that  of  the  feet,  which 
permits  certain  species  to  seize  their  food  at  the  bottom  of 
shallow  waters  ;  sternum  very  long,  affording  complete  pro- 
tection to  the  greater  portion  of  their  viscera,  and  having  on 
each  side  but  one  emargination  or  oval  hole  furnished  with 
membrane;  gizzard  generally  muscular;  inferior  larynx 
simple,  but  in  one  family  inflated  into  cartilaginous  capsules. 
Four  families. 

FAMILY  I.     BRACHYPTEILE. 

Legs  placed  farther  back  than  in  any  other  birds,  which 
renders  walking  painful  to  them,  and  obliges  them  to  stand 
when  on  land  in  a  vertical  position  ;  flight  feeble,  or  none  at 
all;  plumage  very  dense,  smooth  and  glossy  like  silver; 
they  swim  under  water  by  the  aid  of  their  wings.  Three 
genera. 

GE*C§  COLYM  BV«,  Lin.    Diver. 

Beak  smooth,  straight,  compressed  and  pointed  ;  nostrils 
linear  ;  they  consume  a  great  many  fish.  Three  remarkable 
subgenera,  distinguished  by  the  form  of  their  feet. 

••MEiruf  PoDiccrt  ,  Lath.    Grebe. 

Toes  widened  by  membranes,  the  anterior  only  united  at 
the  base;  middle  nail  flattened. 


McKeuf  ,  Bruw.    Diver  proper. 

Feet  palmated;    nails  pointed;    northern  birds  seldom 
breeding  among  us,  but  migrate  south  during  winter. 


,  BriM.     GuMUmat. 

No  thumb;  feathers  as  far  as  the  nostrils;  wings  still 
shorter  than  those  of  the  Divers. 

Grow  ALCA,  Do.    Auk*. 

Beak  very  much  coinpfOMttd,  elevated  vertically,  trenchant 
towards  the  rear,  and  generally  ridged  across  ;  feet  entirely 
palmated,  and  wanting  the  thumb.  [Northern  Seas.] 

Gcvu«  APTKXODYTC*,  font.    Penguin. 

No  flight  ;  small  wings,  furnished  with  traces  of  plumage, 


76  AVES. 

like  scales  ;  when  standing  they  rest  upon  the  tarsus,  which 
is  widened  like  the  sole  of  the  foot  in  some  quadrupeds. 

FAMILY  II.     LONGIPENNES. 

Thumb  small  or  none ;  wings  very  long ;  beak  not  indented, 
but  crooked  at  the  end  in  the  first  genera,  and  merely  pointed 
in  the  others. 

GENUS  PROCELLARIA,  Lin.     Petrel. 

Beak  curved  at  the  end,  which  appears  to  be  formed  of  a 
piece  articulated  to  the  rest ;  nostrils  united  in  a  tube  upon 
the  back  of  the  upper  mandible ;  a  sharp  nail  instead  of 
thumb. 

GENUS  DIOMEDEA,  Lin.    Albatross. 

Beak  large,  strong,  trenchant,  and  terminated  by  a  thick 
crook,  which  appears  to  be  articulated  there ;  nostrils  resem- 
bling short  rolls  placed  upon  the  beak ;  feet  without  thumbs 
or  even  small  nails. ;  wings  very  long  and  narrow.  These 
are  the  largest  sea-birds.  [Southern  Ocean.] 

GENUS  LARUS,  Lin.     Gull. 

Beak  compressed,  elongated,  pointed;  upper  mandible 
curved  at  the  extremity,  the  inferior  angular  aiid  inflated  j 
nostrils  long,  narrow  and  open  for  one  half  the  length  of  the 
beak ;  tail  composed  of  equal  feathers ;  legs  tolerably  long ; 
thumbs  short ;  the  larger  species  are  called  Goelands,  the 
lesser  Mouettes. 

GENUS  STERNA.     Sea- Swallow. 

Wings  excessively  long  and  pointed ;  tail  forked ;  beak 
pointed,  compressed,  straight,  without  curve  or  projection ; 
the  nostrils  situated  near  the  base ;  toes  to  the  number  of 
four,  one  behind  long  enough  to  reach  the  earth,  three  before 
united  by  emarginated  membranes,  causing  them  to  swim 
badly. 

FAMILY  III.     TOTIPALMAT^E. 

Thumb  united  to  the  toes  by  one  single  membrane,  which 
renders  their  feet  complete  oars  when  extended  ;  feet  short ; 
they  are  the  only  Palmipedes  who  perch  upon  trees. 


AVES.  77 

GENUS  PELECANUS,  Lin.     Pelican, 

Beak  exceedingly  long,  straight,  depressed  and  terminated 
by  a  kind  of  nail ;  the  lower  mandible  has  flexible  branches 
sustaining  a  naked  membrane,  which  can  be  dilated  into  a 
more  or  less  voluminous  sac ;  nostrils  linear,  hardly  percep- 
tible ;  eyes  heavy  and  naked  like  the  throat. 

GENUS  TACHYPETES,  Vieil.     Frigate-Bird. 

No  remarkable  pouch  ;  tail  forked ;  feet  short ;  toes  semi- 
palmate  ;  wings  very  long ;  mandible  short  and  curved  at 
the  point. 

GENUS  SULA,  Briss.     Booby. 

Beak  straight,  the  edges  provided  with  teeth ;  nostrils  pro- 
longed by  a  line  which  extends  to  near  the  point ;  throat 
naked  (as  well  as  the  circumference  of  the  eyes),  and  little 
extensible  ;  nail  of  the  middle  toe  indented  like  a  saw ;  wings 
moderate. 

FAMILY  IV.     LAMELLIROSTRES. 

Beak  thick,  clothed  with  a  soft  skin  rather  than  with  true 
horn,  the  edges  furnished  with  small  laminae  or  teeth ;  tongue 
wide  and  fleshy,  and  the  edges  notched ;  three  toes  before 
united  by  membranes,  one  behind  free ;  wings  of  moderate 
length ;  habitation  more  frequently  upon  fresh  waters  than 
upon  the  sea. 

GENUS  ANAS,  Lin. 

Beak  large  and  broad,  the  edges  furnished  with  a  row  of 
projecting  laminae,  placed  transversely,  which  seem  intended 
to  let  the  water  escape  when  the  bird  seizes  its  prey.  Three 
remarkable  subgenera. 

SUBGENUS  CYGNUS,  Meyer.  Swan. 

Beak  as  broad  before  as  behind  ;  neck  very  long ;  nostrils 
in  the  middle  of  the  length  of  the  beak. 

SUBGENUS  ANSER,  Briss.     Goose. 

Beak  moderate  and  narrow  before ;  legs  longer  than  in  the 
Anas  proper. 


78  AVES. 

SUBGENUS  ANAS,  Meyer.     Duck. 

Beak  widened  and  much  flattened  towards  the  end ;  legs 
very  short ;  neck  moderate.  Some  species  have  the  thumb 
bordered  with  a  membrane,  others  have  not. 

GENUS  FULIGULA,  Leach. 

Beak  broad  and  flat.  The  Canvass-back  and  Red-neck 
belong  to  this  genus. 

GENUS  MERGUS. 

Beak  thin,  cylindrical,  much  crooked  at  its  extremity; 
mandibles  with  sharp  teeth  directed  backwards  ;  nostrils  per- 
forated. 


REPTILIA. 


Reptilia  are  oviparous  Vertebrata,  with  an  incomplete  cir- 
culation and  diminished  respiration,  organized  for  creeping. 

On  each  contraction  of  the  heart  in  Reptiles,  only  a  part  of 
the  blood  received  from  the  system  is  thrown  into  the  lungs, 
and  therefore  only  that  portion  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
atmosphere.  It  results  from  this  that  the  respiration  is  less 
than  in  the  preceding  divisions,  consequently  the  heat  of  the 
blood  is  less,  and  they  are  called  cold-blooded  animals ;  their 
muscular  energy  is  less ;  digestion  slower ;  sensations  more 
obtuse ;  and  in  cold  climates  they  pass  the  winter  in  a  state 
of  torpor. 

The  brain  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animals, 
and  their  sensations  do  not  appear  to  be  referred  to  the  brain 
as  a  common  centre,  since  they  live  and  move  after  the  loss 
of  the  brain  and  even  after  the  removal  of  the  head. 

The  external  covering  of  the  body  is  composed  of  scales  or 
naked  skin,  as  on  account  of  their  blood  being  cold  they  do 
not  require  to  be  protected  against  the  loss  of  temperature. 
Their  eggs  are  not  hatched  by  the  parents,  but  generally  by 
the  influence  of  solar  heat. 


REPTILIA.  79 


ORDER  I.     CHELONIA.* 

Body  oval,  short,  enclosed  in  a  solid  shell,  covered  by 
skin,  or  with  large  scales;  the  upper  part  of  the  shell,  com- 
posed of  dorsal  vertebrae  and  ribs  (as  many  as  eight  pair) 
spread  out  and  united  together,  is  denominated  the  carapax; 
the  under  part,  formed  generally  of  nine  pieces,  constitutes  a 
true  sternum,  and  is  called  the  plastron.  A  kind  of  frame 
surrounds  the  carapax  and  joins  it  to  the  plastron  at  the  sides ; 
it  is  composed  of  a  series  of  pieces,  which  appear  to  repre- 
sent the  sternal  portion  of  the  ribs.  The  scapula  and  bones 
of  the  pelvis,  instead  of  being  attached  to  the  ribs  and  dorsal 
spine,  are  attached  beneath,  so  that  the  Tortoise  may  be  con- 
sidered as  an  inverted  animal.  The  vertebral  extremity  of 
the  scapula  is  articulated  with  the  carapax ;  the  inferior  ex- 
tremity with  two  bones,  of  which  one  is  analogous  to  the 
coracoid  apophysis  of  Birds  and  remains  free,  the  other,  rep- 
resenting the  clavicle,  is  united  to  the  plastron ;  so  that  the 
two  shoulders  form  a  ring  through  which  pass  the  oesopha- 
gus and  trachea ;  jaws  covered  with  horn  as  in  Birds ;  no 
teeth  ;  heart  composed  of  two  auricles  and  of  only  one  ven- 
tricle, with  two  unequal  communicating  chambers.  Four 
remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     TBSTUDO,  Brog.     Land  Tortoise. 

Feet  adapted  for  walking  ;  legs  as  if  truncated,  with  very 
short  toes  closely  joined  as  far  as  the  nails,  of  which  there  are 
five  before  and  four  behind. 

GENUS  II.     EMYS,  Brog.     Fresh-Water  Tortoise. 

Toes  more  widely  separated  than  in  the  preceding,  and 
more  or  less  palmated ;  carapax  usually  more  flattened  than 
in  the  former. 

GENUS  III.     CHELONIA,  Brog.     Sea  Tortoise. 

Feet  elongated  and  flattened  in  the  form  of  fins;  toes 
closely  united  in  a  single  membrane ;  shell  too  small  to  re- 
ceive the  head  and  feet. 

*  Tortoises. 


80  REPTIL1A. 

GENUS  IV.     TRJONYX.     Soft  Tortoise. 

No  scales ;  merely  a  soft  skin  to  envelope  their  carapax  and 
plastron. 


ORDER  II.     SAURIA. 

Heart  like  that  of  the  Chelonise ;  ribs  movable,  partially 
connected  with  a  sternum,  and  serving  for  respiration ;  lungs 
more  or  less  extended  towards  the  posterior  extremity  of  the 
body;  skin  covered  with  scales  or  hard  granulations  called 
shagreen ;  mouth  always  armed  with  teeth ;  toes  generally 
provided  with  nails  ;  tail  more  or  less  long ;  most  usually  four 
legs,  sometimes  only  two  ;  eggs  enveloped  in  a  hard  and  cal- 
careous shell.  Six  families. 

FAMILY  I.     CROCODILIDA. 

Animals  of  large  size ;  tail  flattened  laterally,  which  ren- 
ders them  aquatic;  four  limbs;  five  toes  before,  four  behind, 
more  or  less  palmated ;  only  the  three  internal  ones  armed 
with  claws;  a  single  row  of  pointed  teeth  in  each  jaw  ;  tongue 
fleshy  and  flat,  and  adhering  close  at  its  edges ;  the  back 
and  tail  covered  with  large  square  scales,  relieved  by  a  ridge 
along  their  middle ;  those  of  the  abdomen  fine  and  smooth ; 
a  crest  with  strong  indentures  on  the  tail,  double  at  the  base; 
ventricle  of  the  heart  divided  into  two  chambers,  made  dis- 
tinct by  a  complete  partition  ;  instinct  carnivorous ;  habita- 
tion in  fresh  waters.  Three  genera. 

GENUS  I.     CROCODILUS,  Briss.     Crocodile  proper. 

The  fourth  tooth  of  the  under  jaw  passing  into  a  notch  of 
the  upper  jaw;  teeth  of  unequal  size ;  muzzle  moderate  and 
depressed  horizontally ;  toes  of  posterior  limbs  entirely  pal- 
mated.  [Both  Continents.] 

GENUS  II.     GAVIAL,  Cuv. 

The  fourth  tooth  of  the  under  jaw  passing  into  a  notch  of 
the  upper  ;  teeth  equal ;  muzzle  long,  slim  and  cylindrical ; 
toes  of  the  posterior  limbs  entirely  palmated.  [The  old  con- 
tinent only.] 


REPTILIA.  81 

GENUS  III.    ALLIGATOR,  Cuv. 

The  fourth  tooth  of  the  under  jaw  entering  into  a  hole  in 
the  upper ;  toes  of  posterior  limbs  semi-palmated.  [America 
only.] 

FAMILY  II.     LACERTINIDA. 

Tongue  extensible  and  terminated  in  two  threads;  five 
free  toes  on  each  foot,  unequal  and  armed  with  nails ;  scales 
of  the  abdomen  and  top  of  the  tail  arranged  in  transverse 
bands.  Two  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     MONITOR. 

Large  size ;  tail  flattened  laterally ;  teeth  to  the  jaws,  not 
to  the  palate. 

GENUS  II.  '  LACERTA.    Lizard  proper. 

Extremity  of  the  palate  armed  with  two  rows  of  teeth ;  a 
collar  under  the  neck  formed  of  large  scales ;  a  casque  formed 
by  the  projection  of  the  cranium  over  the  orbits. 

FAMILY  III.     IGUANIDA. 

All  the  characteristics  of  the  second  family  except  that  the 
tongue  is  not  extensible.  Two  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     AGAMA,  Daud. 

Head  enlarged  behind ;  no  teeth  in  the  palate ;  scales  of 
the  tail  imbricate;  spines  on  different  parts  of  the  body, 
especially  near  the  ear ;  skin  of  the  throat  loose  and  suscep- 
tible of  inflation ;  some  have  femoral  pores,  others  none. 

GENUS  II.     DRACO,  Lin.     Dragon. 

No  teeth  in  the  palate  ;  the  six  first  false  ribs,  instead  of 
investing  the  abdomen,  extend  in  a  straight  line  and  support 
a  fold  of  the  skin  of  the  sides,  forming  a  parachute ;  scales 
imbricate. 

GENUS  III.    IGUANA,  Cuv. 

Teeth  on  the  palate ;  ribs  formed  in  the  ordinary  manner ; 
a  range  of  recurved  scales  all  along  the  back ;  a  dewlap  under 
the  throat.  [America.] 


82  REPTILIA. 

FAMILY  IV.     GECKOTIDA. 

Form  heavy  ;  aspect  hideous  ;  five  toes  widened  through 
a  part  or  through  the  whole  of  their  length,  so  as  to  allow  of 
their  sustaining  themselves,  like  flies,  with  the  feet  up ;  in 
most  the  nails  are  retractile  ;  eyes  large,  pupil  contracting  on 
the  approach  of  light;  life  nocturnal.  One  genus,  Gecko, 
Baud. 

FAMILY  V.    CHAM^ELEONIDA. 

The  back,  if  it  may  be  so  expressed,  trenchant;  skin  gra- 
nulated ;  five  toes  on  each  foot,  divided  into  two  bundles  op- 
posable  to  each  other ;  tail  prehensile ;  tongue  issuing  from 
the  mouth  in  the  form  of  a  worm  ;  an  enormous  development 
of  the  lungs,  which  enables  the  animal  to  change  colour  and 
even  renders  it,  when  the  lungs  are  full,  nearly  transparent ; 
live  upon  insects.  One  genus,  Chamcelio. 

FAMILY  VI.     SCINCOIDEA. 

Feet  short ;  tongue  not  extensible  ;  scales  equal  and  imbri- 
cated upon  the  body  and  tail. 

GENUS  I.     SEPS,  Daud. 

Body  much  elongated ;  feet  small ;  lungs  unequal. 

GENUS  II.     BIPES,  Lacep. 

Fore  feet  entirely  wanting ;  the  hind  feet  alone  visible ; 
rudiment  of  a  shoulder  beneath  the  skin. 

GENUS  III.     CHIROTES,  Cuv. 

No  hind  feet ;  fore  feet  alone  visible. 



ORDER  III.     OPHIDIA. 

Body  extremely  elongated,  entirely  without  limbs,  moving 
itself  by  means  of  the  folds  it  makes  while  in  contact  with 
the  ground ;  vertebral  column  very  movable,  composed  of  a 
vast  number  of  vertebrae  supporting  themselves ;  a  great 


REPTILIA.  83 

number  of  ribs,  employed  in  respiration ;  no  sternum  nor 
movable  eyelids,  nor  tympanum ;  tongue  very  extensible, 
terminated  by  two  long  movable  points  of  a  consistence  nearly 
like  horns,  and  contained,  while  at  rest,  in  a  membranous 
case ;  the  mouth  furnished  with  teeth  fit  only  to  retain  the 
prey ;  heart  with  two  auricles,  and  only  one  ventricle  ;  only 
one  lung,  extending  far  towards  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
body;  voice,  when  any,  consisting  in  a  dull  hiss;  eggs  agglu- 
tinated in  the  form  of  a  chaplet,  and  quite  soft,  although  en- 
veloped in  a  calcareous  substance.  Three  families. 

FAMILY  I.     ANGUINA. 

Three  eyelids  ;  imbricated  scales  over  all  the  body ;  most 
usually  the  rudiment  of.  a  shoulder  or  pelvis  under  the  skin. 

FAMILY  II.     SERPENTIA. 

No  sternum  nor  vestige  of  shoulder ;  no  third  eyelid  nor 
tympanum.  In  this  family  are  comprised  the  greater  part 
and  the  most  singular  of  the  Ophidia.  Two  tribes. 

TRIBE  I.     AMPHISBCENA. 

Mouth  not  dilatable ;  head  uniform  with  the  body,  permit- 
ting them  to  walk  equally  well  backwards  or  forwards ;  body 
covered  with  scales. 

TRIBE  II.     SERPENS  PROPER. 

Jaw  so  arranged  as  to  permit  a  wide  opening  of  the  mouth ; 
the  two  branches  are  not  soldered,  and  can  separate  laterally; 
the  tympanal  bone  to  which  they  are  attached  is  itself  sus- 
pended to  another  bone  articulated  to  the  cranium ;  the  two 
upper  maxillary  bones  preserve  also  their  mobility ;  besides 
the  teeth  of  the  jaws  there  is  a  double  range  in  the  palatine 
arches.  Two  sections. 

Section  I.     Non-  Venomous. 

No  movable  teeth  either  with  channel  or  tube ;  all  are 
fixed  strongly ;  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth  four  rows  nearly 
equal,  two  below.  Two  genera. 


84  REPTILIA. 

GENUS  I.     BOA,  Lin. 

Under  part  of  the  tail  and  body  furnished  with  a  simple 
uninterrupted  band  of  scales ;  body  compressed  ;  two  hooks 
near  the  extremity ;  tail  prehensile. 

GENUS  II.     COLUBER,  Lin.  %> 

Plates  beneath  the  tail,  arranged  in  pairs.  Two  subge- 
nera.  The  subgenus  Python  is  of  great  size,  and  has  hooks 
near  the  extremity  ;  the  subgenus  Coluber  proper  is  of  small 
size,  has  no  hooks,  and  large  plates  upon  the  head. 

Section  1L      Venomous. 

A  gland  placed  under  the  eye  secretes  a  poison,  and  dis- 
charges it  by  a  canal,  whose  extremity  opens  into  a  duct  or 
gutter  channelled  in  certain  teeth  of  the  Cupper  jaw  called 
movable  fangs ;  the  animal,  at  will,  can  conceal  them  in  a 
fold  of  the  gum ;  besides  these  there  are,  in  the  upper  jaw, 
two  ranges  of  palatine  teeth.  Two  genera. 

GENUS  I.     CROTALUS,  Lin. 

Rattles  at  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  as  many  as  seven  or 
eight,  very  rarely  ten.  A  small  rounded  pit  behind  each 
nostril.  [America.] 

GENUS  II.     VIPERA,  Baud. 

No  rattles  at  the  extremity  of  the  tail  nor  rounded  inden- 
tation behind  each  nostril.  Two  subgenera. 

SUBGENUS  VIPER  PROPER. 

Small  granulated  scales  on  the  top  of  the  head. 

SUBGENUS  NAIA. 

Head  furnished  with  plates ;  anterior  limbs  susceptible  of 
being  raised  up  and  drawn  forwards,  so  as  to  dilate  this  part 
of  the  body  into  a  disk  more  or  less  broad. 

v-  •. '  '       •    •     »' "  *'-.,';  •'*.-•'-  -'••         *    V.     <.;f- 

FAMILY  III.     NUDA. 
Consist  of  a  single  genus. 

COECILIA,  Lin. 

So  called  because  their  eyes  are  so  small  as  even  to  seem 
to  be  wanting ;  scales  so  small  that  the  skin  appears  to  be 


REPTILIA.  85 


entirely  naked.     To  this  genus  belongs  the  common  Orvet 
or  Slow  Worm. 


ORDER  IV.     BATRACHIA. 

No  carapax,  nor  scales,  nor  nails ;  body  covered  with  a 
naked  skin;  limbs  most  generally;  a  heart  with  two  auricles 
and  one  ventricle ;  two  equal  lungs,  to  which,  at  first,  are 
added  branchiae  supported  on  each  side  of  the  neck  by  carti- 
laginous arches.  The  greater  part  lose  these  branchiae  and 
the  apparatus  which  supports  them  in  passing  from  the  con- 
dition of  Fish  to  that  of  Reptile.  Three  genera — among  which 
are  the  Protei — retain  them  for  life.  Eggs  enveloped  in  a 
simple  membrane,  and  becoming  greatly  enlarged  in  the 
water.  Two  families. 

FAMILY  I.     RANA.     FROG. 

Four  legs,  but  no  tail,  in  their  perfect  state.  Head  flat ; 
muzzle  rounded;  opening  of  the  jaws  wide;  anterior  feet 
short,  terminated  by  four  toes ;  the  posterior  longer  and  fre- 
quently having  six.  In  the  greater  part  there  is  a  soft  tongue 
not  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  gullet,  but  to  the  edges  of 
the  jaw,  and  folding  inwards.  Skeleton  without  ribs ;  inspi- 
ration being  effected  by  a  motion  of  deglutition,  expiration  by 
a  contraction  of  the  abdominal  muscles.  The  young,  which 
issues  from  an  egg,  is  called  a  Tadpole',  it  is  provided  with  a 
long  fleshy  tail,  and  with  a  little  beak  of  horn;  and  its  only 
limbs  are  small  fringes  at  the  side  of  the  neck  which  disap- 
pear at  the  end  of  a  few  days.  Respiration  is  effected  by 
branchiae  affixed  to  the  hyoid  bone ;  the  water  which  enters 
the  mouth  and  traverses  them,  issues  by  one  or  two  openings. 
At  a  certain  period  these  organs  decay;  the  horny  beak  falls; 
the  intestines  become  shortened;  to  the  herbivorous  regimen 
succeeds  a  carnivorous  one  ;  the  tail  is  insensibly  absorbed  ; 
the  legs  perceptibly  develop  themselves,  the  hind  ones  ap- 
pearing sooner  than  the  anterior,  which  grow  beneath  the 
skin.  Four  remarkable  genera. 


86  REPTILIA. 

GENUS  I.     RANA,  Lin.     Frog  proper. 

Skin  smooth;  body  tapering;  hind  feet  very  long  and 
more  or  less  palmated ;  a  row  of  small  teeth  all  round  the 
upper  jaw ;  under  each  ear,  in  the  males,  a  fine  membrane, 
which  becomes  inflated  when  they  cry  out ;  these  animals 
swim  and  leap  very  well. 

GENUS  II.     HYLA,  Laur.     Tree-Frog. 

Same  characteristics  as  the  frogs ;  the  only  difference  lies 
in  a  kind  of  rounded  viscous  pellet  placed  upon  each  toe,  and 
which  enables  them  to  adhere  to  the  smoothest  bodies,  and 
to  run  upon  the  leaves  of  trees  with  the  feet  upwards. 

GENUS  III.     BUFO,  Laur.     Toad. 

A  thick  bulky  body ;  skin  covered  with  warty  excrescences ; 
hind  legs  short;  a  thick  lump,  pierced  with  pores,  behind  the 
ears,  which  emits  a  milky,  fetid  humour.  No  teeth. 

GENUS  IV.     PIPA,  Laur. 

Body  flattened  horizontally ;  head  triangular ;  no  tongue ; 
each  of  the  fore  toes  divided  into  four  small  parts  at  the  ex- 
tremity ;  the  species  best  known  inhabits  South  America,  and 
presents  a  very  remarkable  phenomenon.  The  male  places 
the  eggs  upon  the  back  of  the  female  who  repairs  to  the 
water;  the  skin  of  the  back  there  swells  and  forms  little 
cells,  where  the  young  inclose  themselves  during  the  meta- 
morphosis. 

FAMILY  II.     SALAMANDRA. 

Four  feet;  a  tail  as  in  the  Lizards;  very  small  ribs;  in  the 
adult  state,  respiration  as  in  the  Ranse,  except  in  three  genera, 
where  branchiae  exist  through  life ;  branchial  arches  in  the 
Tadpole  inclosed  in  a  tunic,  and  floating  externally;  fore  feet 
appear  before  the  hind  ones. 

-""     -:  , •    '  ••    f '  ' .  '*'*'':  •'."*';  .  '    ,5.       r*.' '''*-•'*'     '..  -" •i 

GENUS  I.     SALAMANDRA,  Laur.     Terrestrial  Salamander. 

In  the  perfect  state,  tail  round ;  four  toes  before,  generally 
five  behind ;  existence  as  a  Tadpole  brief. 

GENUS  II.     TRITON,  Laur.     Aquatic  Salamander. 

Tail  compressed  at  the  sides ;  astonishing  power  of  repro- 


REPTILIA.  87 

duction  exhibited  in  the  formation  of  new  limbs  in  the  place 
of  those  cut  or  torn  off.  ) .  * 

GENUS  III.     PROTEUS,  Laur. 

True  Amphibia  on  account  of  the  double  use  of  lungs  and 
branchiae  throughout  life. 


PISCES. 


Fish  are  oviparous  Vertebratae  with  a  double  circulation,  and 
organs  of  respiration  adapted  to  the  element  in  which  they 
live.  The  respiration  is  performed  by  means  of  branchice 
(gills)  situated  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  composed  of  nume- 
rous laminae  covered  with  small  blood  vessels.  The  air  in 
the  water  which  passes  through  these  laminae  acts  upon  the 
blood  which  is  constantly  arising  from  the  heart.  The  heart 
consists  of  one  auricle  and  one  ventricle  which  transmit  the 
blood  to  the  branchiae ;  from  thence  it  is  conveyed  into  an 
artery  situated  under  the  spine.  This  vessel  acts  like  the 
left  ventricle  in  Mammalia  and  distributes  the  blood  to  all 
parts  of  the  system  to  be  returned  by  the  veins  to  the  heart. 

The  structure  of  Fish  is  well  adapted  for  swimming,  and 
this  is  facilitated  in  a  number  of  species  by  an  air  bladder 
immediately  under  the  spine.  The  tail  is  the  principal  in- 
strument in  progression.  The  organs  analogous  to  limbs  are 
much  reduced  and  are  represented  by  rays  which  support 
membranous  fins.  Those  fins  which  correspond  to  the  fore 
limbs  are  called  pectoral,  to  the  hind  ones  ventral,  those  situ- 
ated on  the  back  dorsal,  those  below  anal,  and  those  at  the 
end  of  the  tail  caudal  The  rays  are  either  hard  and  pointed, 
consisting  of  a  single  piece  divided  through  its  length,  when 
they  are  called  spinous;  or  they  consist  of  a  number  of  pieces 
articulated  together,  called  articulated  rays. 

The  head  varies  in  form,  but  consists  of  the  same  number 


88  PISCES. 

of  bones  as  in  other  Ovipara,  each  bone  being  divided  into 
several  pieces.  In  the  greater  number  the  intermaxillary 
bone  forms  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw,  having  behind  the 
maxillary  or  labial  bone.  A  palatine  arch  composed  of  the 
process  of  several  bones  forms  a  sort  of  anterior  jaw,  and 
aifords,  behind,  an  articulation  for  the  lower  jaw,  which 
usually  consists  of  two  mandibulary  bones  on  each  side. 
The  hyoid  bone  has  rays  on  each  side  for  the  support  of  the 
branchise.  These  latter  are  covered  by  three  bony  pieces  as 
a  sort  of  lid,  the  operculum,  the  suboperculum,  and  the  inter- 
operculum,  so  as  to  close  the  great  opening  of  the  gills ;  these 
three  united  play  upon  a  fourth,  the  prceoperculum. 

This  class  may  be  divided  into  Fishes  Proper  or  Bony 
Fishes,  and  the  Chondropterygii  or  Cartilaginous  Fishes. 


Series  I.     Bony  Fishes, 
t ' ' 

ORDER  I.    ACANTHOPTERYGII. 

14  •;-.  i.  (ffEg  ,tsi    - 

Spines  occupying  the  place  of  the  first  rays  of  the  dorsal, 
or  alone  sustaining  the  first  fin  of  the  back  where  there  are 
two  ;  some  spines  to  the  anal ;  generally  one  to  each  ventral 
The  mobility  of  the  upper  jaw  and  the  disposition  in  combs 
of  the  branchise  distinguish  them  from  the  Plectognathi  and 
the  Lophobranchii.  Fifteen  families,  of  which  we  give  the 
four  most  remarkable. 

FAMILY  I.     PERCOIDES. 

Body  oblong  and  covered  with  scales,  generally  hard  and 
rough;  operculum  or  prseoperculum,  often  both,  with  denta- 
ted  or  spinous  edges ;  the  jaws,  the  fore  part  of  the  vomer, 
and  generally  the  palatine  bones,  furnished  with  teeth. 
Three  divisions. 

The  first  have  the  ventrals  inserted  under  the  pectorals, 
and  forming  a  division  which  may  be  called  Thoraci-Per- 
coides.  Two  remarkable  genera. 


PISCES. 
GENUS  I.     PERCA,  Cuv.     Perch. 

Ventral  fins  under  the  pectorals;  two  dorsals;  seven  bran- 
chial rays ;  all  the  teeth  en  velours  (so  small  and  close  to- 
gether as  to  resemble  the  pile  of  velvet) ;  bony  operculum 
terminating  in  two  or  three  sharp  points;  preeoperculum  den- 
tated ;  tongue  smooth. 

GENUS  II.     LABRAX,  Cuv. 

Differ  from  the  Perca  in  having  scaly  opercula  termina- 
ting in  two  spines;  tongue  rough.  Includes  the  Rock  Fish  of 
America. 

Another  division  have  the  ventrals  placed  more  forward 
than  the  pectorals;  they  are  called  Jugulares.  The  most 
remarkable  genus  of  which  is  the 

URANOSCOPUS,  Lin.     Star  Gazers. 

Eyes  placed  at  the  upper  surface  of  the  head,  and  look  up- 
wards ;  mouth  vertical. 

The  third  division  have  the  ventrals  farther  back  than  the 
pectorals.  They  constitute  the  Abdominales. 

MULLUS.     Mullet. 

Ventrals  to  the  rear ;  pelvis  not  suspended  to  the  shoulder ; 
three  rays  to  the  branchiae ;  praeoperculum  not  dentated ;  two 
long  cirri  (beards)  hanging  from  the  under  jaw. 

FAMILY  II.     ACANTHOPTERYGII, 

WITH  MAILED  CHEEKS. 

Aspect  of  the  head  singular,  being  variously  bristled  and 
plated  ;  the  suborbital  bones  more  or  less  extended  upon  the 
cheeks.  Two  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.    TRIGLA,  Cuv. 

Three  rays,  free,  and  spread  out  under  the  pectoral  fin,  but 
not  sufficiently  developed  to  sustain  them  in  the  air. 

GENUS  II.     DACTYLOPTERUS,  Lacep.     Flying  Fish. 

Under  rays  of  the  pectoral  very  numerous  and  united  by  a 
membrane,  so  as  to  form  an  additional  pectoral  longer  than 

M 


90  PISCES. 

the  fish  itself,  and  capable  of  sustaining  it  in  the  air  for  a 
considerable  time. 

.-,-•''•-  "rr    }».;    •••  \     ;•,*••  '•' 

FAMILY  III.     SCOMBEROIDES. 

Scales  small ;  body  smooth  ;  tail  and  caudal  fin  very  vigo- 
rous. Three  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     SCOMBER.     Mackarel. 

Two  small  cutaneous  crests  on  the  sides  of  the  tail ;  an 
empty  space  between  the  two  dorsals ;  five  false  fins  above 
and  below.  -,;„/• 

GENUS  II.     THYNNUS.     Tunny. 

A  kind  of  corselet  around  the  throat,  formed  by  scales  larger 
and  smoother  than  those  of  the  rest  of  the  body ;  nine  false 
fins  above  and  below. 

GENUS  III.     XIPHIAS.     Sword-Fish. 

A  beak  or  long  point,  in  the  form  of  a  sword  or  spit,  ter- 
minating the  upper  jaw,  and  forming  a  powerful  weapon. 

FAMILY  IV.     ACANTHOPTERYGII, 

WITH  LABYRINTHIFORM  PHARYNGEALS. 

The  superior  pharyngeals  divided  into  small  lamellae,  more 
or  less  numerous,  irregular,  intercepting  cells  in  which  the 
water  remains  to  flow  upon  and  moisten  the  branchiae  while 
the  fish  is  removed  from  its  element.  This  permits  it  to  seek 
the  land  and  crawl  to  a  considerable  distance  from  the  water ; 
a  singular  faculty,  which  gave  rise  to  the  Indian  belief  that 
these  animals  fell  from  heaven. 


ORDER  II.    MALACOPTERYGII  ABDOMINALES. 

Upper  jaw  movable  ;  branchiae  in  combs ;  rays  of  the  fins 
generally  cartilaginous  ;  ventrals  suspended  under  the  abdo- 
men and  behind  the  pectorals,  without  being  attached  to  the 
bones  of  the  shoulder.  A  numerous  order,  comprising  the 
greater  part  of  Fresh-water  Fishes.  Five  families. 


PISCES.  91 

• 

FAMILY  I.     CIPRINID^E. 

Mouth  slightly  cloven ;  jaws  weak  and  generally  without 
teeth ;  pharyngeals  deeply  indented,  to  compensate  for  the 
trifling  armature  of  the  jaws  ;  body  scaly  ;  no  adipose  dorsal; 
these  are  the  least  carnivorous  of  fish.  Only  one  remarkable 
genus. 

GENUS  CYPRINUS,  Lin.     Carp. 

Tongue  smooth;  the  palate  provided  with  a  thick,  soft  and 
singularly  irritable  substance,  commonly  known  by  the  name 
of  "  Carp's  tongue  ;"  pharynx  presenting  a  powerful  instru- 
ment of  mastication;  only  one  dorsal ;  body  scaly;  they  in- 
habit fresh  water,  and  are  the  least  carnivorous  of  their  class ; 
they  live  on  herbage,  grain  and  even  ooze.  Seven  remark- 
able subgenera. 

SUBGENUS  1.     CIPRINUS,  Cuv.     Carp  proper. 

Dorsal  long,  in  which,  as  well  as  in  the  anal,  is  a  spine 
more  or  less  stout,  in  place  of  the  second  ray;  some  have  cirri, 
others  are  without  them. 

SUBGENUS  II.     BARBUS,  Cuv. 

Dorsal  and  anal  short;  a  strong  spine  in  place  of  the 
second  or  third  ray  of  the  dorsal;  four  little  beards  (cirri),  of 
which  two  are  upon  the  end  and  two  at  the  angles  of  the 
upper  jaw. 

SUBGENUS  III.     GOBIO,  Cuv.     Gudgeon. 

Dorsal  and  anal  short,  without  spines  ;  cirri. 

SUBGENUS  IV.    TINCA,  Cuv.     Tench. 

Characteristics  of  the  Gudgeons,  but  very  small  scales  and 
cirri. 

SUBGENUS  V.     LEOCISCUS,  Klein. 

Dorsal  and  anal  short ;  no  spines  nor  cirri. 

SUBGENUS  VI.     CATOSTOMUS,  Leseur. 

Dorsals  short  and  opposite  to  the  ventrals ;  lips  fleshy, 
hanging  and  fringed  or  crenated  ;  inhabit  the  fresh  waters  of 
North  America. 


92  PISCES. 

SUBGENUS  VII.       PCECILIA,  Sclin. 

Have  the  jaws  horizontally  flattened,  protractile,  slightly 
cleft,  armed  with  a  row  of  very  small  teeth ;  operculum 
large ;  five  rays  to  the  branchiae ;  ventral  but  little  way  back ; 
the  dorsal  above  the  anal ;  small  fish  of  the  fresh  waters  of 
America. 

>'*;'!    \    *f* 

FAMILY  II.     ESOCES. 

No  adipose  fin  ;  the  edge  of  the  upper  jaw  formed  by  the 
intermaxillary,  or  when  not  so  formed  the  maxillary  is  with- 
out teeth  and  hidden  by  the  lips  ;  instinct  voracious ;  many 
of  them  ascend  rivers. 

GENUS  I.     Esox,  Cuv.     Pike. 

Muzzle  oblong,  obtuse,  wide  and  depressed ;  one  dorsal 
opposite  the  anal ;  nearly  all  the  mouth,  besides  the  jaws, 
bristled  with  teeth. 

GENUS  II.     EXOCETUS,  Lin.     Flying-Fish. 

Excessive  length  of  the  pectoral  fins,  which  are  sufficiently 
extended  to  support  them  some  time  in  the  air.  Their  flight 
is  never  very  long ;  they  rise  to  avoid  voracious  Fishes,  but 
soon  fall,  as  their  wings  merely  serve  as  parachutes.  Dorsal 
placed  above  the  anal ;  branchial  rays  ten. 

FAMILY  III.     SILURID^E. 

No  true  scales ;  a  naked  skin  or  large  osseous  plates ;  al- 
most always  the  dorsal  and  pectoral  have  a  strong  articulated 
spine  instead  of  the  first  ray ;  frequently  an  adipose  one  be- 
hind. Those  of  the  genus  Silurus  are  commonly  called  Cat- 
Pish. 

FAMILY  IV.     SALMONIDES. 

Body  scaly ;  the  first  dorsal  with  soft  rays,  followed  by  a 
small  adipose  one,  that  is  to  say  one  formed  simply  of  a  fold 
of  the  skin  filled  with  fat  and  unsupported  by  rays. 

GENUS  I.     SALMO,  Cuv.     Salmon  proper, 

Or  Trout,  have  interior  of  the  mouth  more  completely  armed 
than  in  any  other  Fish ;  their  natatory  bladder  extends  from 
one  end  of  the  abdomen  to  the  other.  Body  almost  always 


PISCES.  93 

spotted.      Ventrals  opposite  to  the   middle  of  the  dorsal. 
Adipose  opposite  the  anal ;  branchial  rays  about  ten. 

GENUS  II.     OSMERUS,  Artedi.     Smelt. 

Mouth  not  so  well  armed  as  in  the  Salmon ;  body  without 
spots ;  ventrals  corresponding  with  the  anterior  edge  of  the 
first  dorsal ;  branchial  rays  eight.  They  are  found  in  the 
sea  at  the  mouth  of  large  rivers. 

FAMILY  V.     CLUPE^E. 

No  adipose  fin ;  body  scaly. 

GENUS  I.     CLUPEA,  Guv.     Herring  proper. 

Intermaxillaries  very  short,  forming  but  part  of  the  upper 
jaw,  the  sides  of  which  are  formed  by  the  maxillaries ;  bran- 
chiae deeply  cleft,  sides  of  the  branchial  rays  comb-like; 
mouth  moderate ;  upper  lips  not  notched. 

GENUS  II.     ALOSA,  N.     Shad. 

An  emargination  in  the  upper  jaw. 

GENUS  III.     ENGRAULIS,  Cuv.     Anchovy. 

Mouth  cleft  far  behind  the  eyes;  branchiae  still  more  open 
than  in  the  Herring ;  rays  twelve  or  more. 


ORDER  III.     MALACOPTERYGII  SUBRACHIATI. 

Ventrals  attached  under  the  pectorals.  Pelvis  immediately 
suspended  to  the  bones  of  the  shoulder.  Two  remarkable 
genera. 

GENUS  I.    GADUS,  Lin. 

Recognizable  by  the  sharp-pointed  ventrals  attached  to  the 
throat.  A  slightly  elongated  compressed  body,  covered  with 
soft  scales ;  head  without  scales,  fins  soft,  jaws  and  front  of 
the  vomer  armed  with  unequal  pointed  teeth  in  many  rows ; 
branchiae  large,  with  seven  rays ;  two  or  three  dorsal,  one  or 
two  anal  and  a  distinct  caudal.  Inhabit  cold  and  temperate 
seas  and  form  important  fisheries. 


94  PISCES. 

SUBGENUS  MORRHUA,  CUV.       Cod. 

Three  dorsal  fins;  two  anals;  a  cirrus  at  the  point  of  the 
lower  jaw. 

SUBGENUS  MERLANGUS.     Whiting. 

The  same  number  of  fins  as  the  Cod,  but  no  cirrus. 

SUBGENUS  MERLUCCIUS,  Cuv.     Hake. 

Two  dorsals ;  only  one  anal ;  no  cirrus. 

GENUS  II.     PLEURONECTES,  Lin. 

Commonly  called  Flat  Fish,  have  a  character  unique  among 
vertebrated  animals,  consisting  in  the  want  of  symmetry  in 
the  head,  where  both  eyes  are  on  one  side,  which  remains 
uppermost  while  the  animal  is  swimming,  and  which  is 
always  deeply  coloured,  while  that  in  which  the  eyes  are 
wanting  is  whitish.  The  rest  of  the  body  participates  a  little 
in  this  irregularity.  The  two  sides  of  the  mouth  are  not 
equal,  and  the  pectorals  rarely  so.  The  body  is  strongly 
compressed  and  vertically  elevated.  The  dorsal  extends 
throughout  the  length  of  the  back;  the  anal  occupies  the 
under  part  of  the  body,  and  the  ventrals  almost  seem  to  con- 
tinue it  before  while  they  are  in  fact  often  united  with  it. 
There  are  six  rays  to  the  gills,  and  no  natatory  bladder;  they 
seldom  quit  the  bottom  of  the  water.  Three  remarkable  sub- 
genera. 

SUBGENUS  I.    PLATESSA,  Cuv.    Plaice. 

A  range  of  obtuse  trenchant  teeth  in  each  jaw;  generally 
teeth  enpaves  to  the  pharyngeals  (arranged  like  paving  stones). 
The  dorsal  only  advances  as  far  as  the  top  of  the  other  eye, 
and  leaving,  as  well  as  the  anal,  an  interval  between  it  and 
the  caudal.  Generally  eyes  on  the  right. 

SUBGENUS  II.    RHOMBUS,  Cuv.     Turbot. 

Teeth  small  and  crowded,  like  those  of  a  card,  in  the  jaws 
and  pharynx;  dorsal  advancing  towards  the  edge  of  the  upper 
jaw,  and  extending,  as  well  as  the  anal,  to  very  near  the  cau- 
dal ;  eyes  almost  always  to  the  left. 

SUBGENUS  III.     SOLEA,  Cuv.     Sole. 

Mouth  twisted,  and  as  if  distorted,  to  the  side  opposite  the 
eyes,  and  furnished  on  this  side  only  with  teeth  en  velours 


PISCES.  95 

(very  minute  and  crowded),  while  the  side  of  the  eye  is  de- 
prived of  teeth ;  dorsal  commencing  at  the  mouth  and  ex- 
tending, as  well  as  the  anal,  to  the  caudal. 


ORDER  IV.     MALACOPTERYGII  APODES. 

Form  elongated ;  skin  thick  and  soft,  presenting  but  little 
appearance  of  scales ;  few  bones ;  no  ventral  fins.  Two  re- 
markable genera. 

GENUS  MURJENA,  Lin. 

Small  opercula  concentrically  surrounded  by  rays,  and  en- 
veloped, as  well  as  these  latter,  in  the  skin,  which  only  opens 
at  a  considerable  distance  back  by  a  species  of  tube.  Two 
remarkable  subgenera. 

SUBGENUS  ANGUILLA,  Cuv.    Eel. 

Gills  opening  on  each  side  under  the  pectoral  fins ;  the 
dorsal  and  caudal  forming  by  their  union  a  pointed  caudal ; 
dorsal  commencing  at  a  considerable  distance  behind  the 
pectorals. 

.  :  .  . 

SUBGENUS  CONGER,  Cuv. 

Dorsal  commencing  near  the  pectorals ;  upper  jaw  longest ; 
same  characteristics  as  in  the  Eel. 

GENUS  GYMNOTUS,  Lin. 

Gills  partially  closed  by  a  membrane,  but  which  opens 
before  the  pectorals ;  anal  extending  generally  to  the  end  of 
the  tail :  no  dorsal. 


ORDER  V.     LOPHOBRANCHII. 

Jaws  complete  and  free ;  branchiae,  instead  of  having  the 
form  of  a  comb,  are  divided  into  small  round  tufts  arranged  in 
pairs  along  the  branchial  arches,  and  concealed  under  a  large 
operculum  tied  down  on  all  sides  by  a  membrane,  which 
leaves  only  a  small  orifice  for  the  escape  of  the  water ;  bran- 


96  PISCES. 

chial  rays  hardly  apparent ;  body  of  small  size,  and  plated 
from  one  end  to  the  other  with  laminae,  which  generally  ren- 
der it  angular.  Two  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  SYNGNATHUS,  Lin. 

A  tubular  snout  terminated  by  an  ordinary  mouth  split 
vertically;  no  ventrals;  the  eggs  slip  into  a  pouch  placed 
under  the  abdomen  or  tail,  and  which  splits  open  for  the  pas- 
sage of  the  fry. 

SUBGENUS  HIPPOCAMPUS,  Cuv. 

Trunk  compressed  laterally,  and  considerably  more  ele- 
vated than  the  tail ;  by  curving  after  death  the  head  and  body 
take  the  semblance  of  the  chest  of  a  horse  in  miniature ;  the 
joints  of  the  scales  are  elevated  into  ridges,  and  their  salient 
angles  into  spines ;  no  caudal  fin. 

GENUS  PEGASUS,  Lin. 

Mouth  opening  beneath  the  base  of  the  snout;  body  mailed; 
trunk  wide  and  depressed ;  pectoral  often  very  large,  whence 
they  derive  their  name ;  dorsal  and  anal  opposite  each  other. 
[Indian  Ocean.] 


ORDER  VI.     PLECTOGNATHI. 

Maxillary  bone  soldered,  or  firmly  attached,  to  the  sides  of 
the  intermaxillary,  which  alone  constitutes  the  jaw ;  palatine 
arch  connected  by  a  suture  with  the  cranium,  and  deprived 
of  mobility;  opercula  and  rays  concealed  under  a  thick  skin, 
leaving  visible  only  a  small  branchial  fissure ;  mere  vestiges 
of  ribs ;  no  true  ventrals ;  natatory  bladder  considerable. 
Two  families. 

FAMILY  I.     GYMNODONTES. 

Jaws  furnished,  instead  of  apparent  teeth,  with  an  ivory 
substance  internally  divided  into  laminae,  whose  ensemble 
resembles  the  beak  of  a  Parrot,  and  which,  in  fact,  consists  of 
true  teeth  united,  succeeding  each  other  as  fast  as  they  are 
destroyed  by  trituration.  One  remarkable  genus. 


PISCES.  97 

GENUS  DIODON,  Lin. 

Jaws  undivided,  and  presenting  only  one  piece  above  and 
another  below,  behind  the  trenchant  edge  of  which  is  a  round 
portion  transversely  furrowed,  and  forming  a  powerful  in- 
strument of  mastication ;  skin  armed  on  all  sides  with  thick 
pointed  spines,  so  that  when  inflated  they  resemble  the  burr 
of  a  chestnut  tree.  They  can  also  swell  themselves  out  by 
filling  their  stomach  with  air,  or  rather  a  sort  of  fine  and  ex- 
tensible crop,  which  occupies  the  whole  length  of  the  ab- 
domen. 

FAMILY  II.     SCLERODERMI. 

Snout  conical  or  pyramidal,  prolonged  from  the  eyes,  and 
terminated  by  a  small  mouth  armed  with  a  few  distinct  teeth 
in  each  jaw;  skin  generally  rough  or  covered  with  hard 
scales.  One  remarkable  genus. 

GENUS  OSTRACION,  Lin. 

In  place  of  scales  bony  and  regular  compartments,  soldered 
as-  in  a  cuirass,  permitting  no  free  movement  except  to  the 
tail  and  fins,  which  pass  through  the  holes  of  this  corselet. 


Series  H.     Chondropterygii.     Cartilaginous  Fishes. 

Skeleton  consisting  of  a  mere  homogeneous  and  semitrans- 
parent  cartilage,  which  is  invested  only  at  the  surface,  in  the 
genera  Raia  and  Squalus,  with  a  bed  of  small,  opaque,  circular 
grains,  arranged  one  against  the  other  and  not  in  threads  or 
filaments. 

In  the  Lampreys  the  skeleton  has  not  even  this  envelope; 
and,  in  the  Ammoccetes,  it  remains  absolutely  membranous. 

The  most  apparent  characteristic  of  this  division  of  the 
class  of  Fishes  is  the  absence  of  maxillary  and  intermaxillary 
bones  ;  or  rather  in  their  only  having  vestiges  of  them  under 
the  skin,  while  their  functions  are  fulfilled  by  bones  analo- 
gous to  palatines,  and  sometimes  even  by  a  vomer.  Three 
orders. 

N 


98  PISCES. 


ORDER  I.     STURIONES. 

Branchiae  free  at  their  external  edge ;  a  single  orifice  very 
open  in  each  operculum ;  no  rays  to  the  membrane.  One 
remarkable  genus. 

GENUS  ACIPENSER,  Lin.     Sturgeon. 

Body  elongated  and  more  or  less  covered  with  bony  plates 
implanted  upon  the  skin  in  longitudinal  rows ;  the  exterior 
portion  of  the  head  also  well  mailed ;  mouth  placed  under  the 
snout,  small  and  without  teeth ;  eyes  and  nostrils  in  the  sides 
of  the  head  ;  cirri  under  the  snout ;  dorsal  behind  the  ven- 
trals  and  beneath  it ;  caudal  surrounding  the  extremity  of  the 
spine,  and  having  a  salient  lobe  beneath  shorter  than  its 
principal  point.  These  enormous  Fishes  are  not  only  inha- 
bitants of  the  ocean  but  likewise  nearly  all  the  northern  rivers 
of  the  old  and  new  world.  Norway  produces  some  of  a 
thousand  pounds  weight.  In  old  Rome  a  respect  approach- 
ing to  worship  was  paid  them,  and  they  were  borne  in  tri- 
umph through  the  streets. 


ORDER  II.     SELACHII. 

Branchiae  fixed  on  both  edges,  and  letting  the  water  escape 
by  as  many  holes  pierced  in  the  skin  as  there  are  intervals 
between  them ;  the  ordinary  bones  of  the  jaw  reduced  to  mere 
vestiges ;  the  bones  which  succeed,  the  palatines  above  and 
postmandibularies  below,  alone  armed  with  teeth ;  branchi- 
ostegal  rays  not  apparent  externally ;  no  operculum ;  pecto- 
rals and  ventrals;  the  latter  placed  behind  the  abdomen. 
Three  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     SQUALUS,  Lin.     Shark. 

Body  elongated  ;  tail  thick  and  fleshy ;  pectorals  of  mode- 
rate size ;  form  approaching  that  of  ordinary  Fishes ;  branchial 
openings ;  eyes  upon  the  sides  of  the  head  and  neck ;  snout 
sustained  by  three  cartilaginous  branches  connected  with 


PISCES.  99 

the  anterior  part  of  the  cranium ;  small  branchial  ribs  appa- 
rent. 

GENUS  II.     PRISTIS,  Lath.     Saw-Fish. 

Uniting  with  the  form  of  the  Shark  a  body  flattened  before ; 
branchiae  opening  below  as  in  Raid,  and  a  very  long  snout  or 
depressed  beak,  like  the  blade  of  a  sword,  armed  on  each  side 
with  strong,  bony,  trenchant  and  pointed  spines ;  this  weapon 
enables  them  to  attack  the  largest  Cetacea. 

GENUS  III.    RAIA,  Lin.     Ray. 

Body  flattened  horizontally,  and  resembling  a  disk  on  ac- 
count of  its  union  with  the  exceedingly  broad  and  fleshy 
pectorals  joined  with  each  other  to  the  snout,  or  before  it,  and 
which  extend  behind  the  two  sides  of  the  abdomen  to  near 
the  base  of  the  ventrals  ;  eyes  on  the  dorsal  surface  as  well 
as  vents  (two  openings  which  communicate  with  the  bran- 
chial cavity  and  supply  it  with  water,  when  the  gullet  of  the 
animal  is  filled  with  prey) ;  mouth,  nostrils  and  branchial 
orifices  on  the  ventral  surface;  dorsals  almost  always  on  the 
tail. 


ORDER  III.     SUCTORII. 

Mouth  in  a  ring ;  skeleton  more  imperfect  than  in  any 
other  vertebrated  animal ;  neither  pectorals  nor  ventrals ;  body 
elongated  and  terminated  before  by  a  fleshy  lip,  circular  or 
semicircular,  sustained  by  a  cartilaginous  ring,  arising  from 
the  soldering  of  the  palatines  to  the  under  jaw  ;  the  branchiae, 
instead  of  combs,  present  the  appearance  of  purses,  formed  by 
the  union  of  one  face  of  a  branchia  with  the  opposite  one  of 
its  neighbour.  One  remarkable  genus. 

GENUS  PETROMYZON,  Burner.     Lamprey. 

Seven  branchial  openings  on  each  side;  skin  of  the  tail, 
above  and  beneath,  turned  up  into  a  longitudinal  crest,  which 
supplies  the  place  of  a  fin,  but  in  which  the  rays  are  hardly 
distinguishable  fibres ;  two  dorsals,  the  posterior  one  joining 
the  caudal ;  maxillary  ring  armed  with  very  strong  teeth ; 


100 


PISCES. 


tubercles  covered  with  a  very  hard  shell,  and  resembling 
teeth,  garnishing  the  inner  disk  of  the  lip,  which  is  very  cir- 
cular ;  tongue  with  two  longitudinal  rows  of  small  teeth,  and 
moving  backwards  and  forwards  like  a  piston,  producing  a 
suction,  by  means  of  which  the  Fish  attaches  itself  to  rocks 
and  other  solid  bodies,  and  even  to  other  Fish,  whom  they 
finally  pierce  and  devour.  Lampreys  are  highly  esteemed 
by  epicures.  In  ancient  Rome  an  extraordinary  price  was 
paid  for  them,  and  satirists  reproached  the  rich  for  their  ex- 
travagance in  this  respect.  In  the  year  1600  a  lamprey  would 
bring  ten  or  even  twenty  pieces  of  gold. 


101 


Second  Great  Division  of  the  Animal  Kingdom. 


ANIMALIA  MOLLUSCA. 


MOLLUSCA  have  no  articulated  skeleton  or  vertebral  canal. 
Their  nervous  system  consists  of  a  number  of  medullary 
masses,  which  are  named  according  to  their  location  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body.  The  principal  one  is  called  the 
brain,  and  is  situated  transversely  on  the  oesophagus,  which 
it  envelopes  with  a  nervous  collar  ;  organs  of  motion,  circu- 
lation and  respiration  various.  The  circulation  is  always 
double,  being  assisted  by  an  aortic  ventricle  seated  between 
the  veins  of  the  lungs  and  the  arteries  of  the  body ;  blood 
white  or  bluish. 

Nearly  all  the  Mollusca  have  a  development  of  skin  called 
a  mantle ;  this  is  either  membranous  or  fleshy  as  in  the  naked 
Mollusca,  or  it  has  developed  in  its  thickness  a  substance 
more  or  less  hard,  arranged  in  layers  :  when  this  substance 
becomes  so  much  developed  that  the  animal  finds  shelter 
beneath  it,  it  is  called  a  shett,  and  the  animal  is  called  testa- 
ceous. 

All  modes  of  mastication  and  every  variety  of  digestive 
apparatus  is  to  be  found  in  this  class.  They  most  generally 
have  a  large  liver. 

Their  muscles  are  attached  to  different  parts  of  the  skin, 
so  as  to  produce  various  inflections,  contractions  or  prolon- 
gations of  the  body,  by  means  of  which  they  creep  or  swim. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  A,  PL  29.  The  nervous  system  of  an 
Octopus:  1,  the  brain;  2,  the  nervous  collar  around  the 


102  ANIMALIA  MOLLUSCA. 

oesophagus ;  3,  optic  ganglions ;  4,  lateral  ganglions ;  5,  ab- 
dominal ganglion. 

Fig.  B.,  PL  29.  Anatomy  of  an  Acephala:  1,  the  mouth 
followed  by  the  stomach  and  intestines ;  2,  the  liver ;  3,  the 
heart ;  4,  the  aorta ;  5,  the  branchiae  ;  6,  the  muscular  appa- 
ratus ;  7,  extension  of  the  mantle  in  the  form  of  a  tube. 


CEPHALOPODA. 


Having  the  most  complicated  organization  of  all  the  Mol- 
lusca;  head  rounded  and  provided  with  two  large  eyes  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  vertebrated  animals ;  apparatus  of 
hearing  situated  in  two  little  cavities,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
head,  without  external  meatus  or  semicircular  canal,  and  in- 
closing a  membranous  sac,  in  which  is  suspended  a  small 
stone ;  mouth  armed  with  strong  horny  jaws,  like  the  beak  of 
a  Parrot;  about  its  opening  long  fleshy  arms,  extremely  vigo- 
sous,  capable  of  being  flexed  in  every  direction,  and  provided 
with  suckers,  by  means  of  which  they  attach  themselves  very 
firmly  to  the  objects  which  they  embrace ;  the  rest  of  the 
body  inclosed  in  a  kind  of  sac ;  branchiae  receive  the  venous 
blood  under  the  influence  of  the  contractions  of  two  fleshy 
ventricles  situated  at  the  base  of  each ;  aortic  heart  composed 
of  one  ventricle  only ;  stomach  extremely  complicated ;  a 
peculiar  gland  secretes  a  blackish  humour,  which  they  em- 
ploy in  tinting  the  water  of  the  sea  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
cealing themselves,  and  which  is  kept  in  a  pouch  diversely 
situated  according  to  the  species. 

GENUS  I.     OCTOPUS,  Lam.     Polypus. 

Sack  without  the  fins ;  rudiments  of  a  small  dorsal,  con- 
sisting in  two  little  grains  of  a  horny  substance,  on  the  two 
sides,  of  the  thickness  of  the  back;  eight  feet,  nearly  equal, 
very  large  in  proportion  to  the  body,  and  united  at  base  by  a 
membrane ;  the  animal  uses  them  in  crawling  and  seizing  its 


ANIMALIA  MOLLUSCA.  103 

prey  ;  their  length  and  strength  make  them  formidable  wea- 
pons, by  whose  means  it  entwines  itself  around  other  animals, 
even  destroying  men  while  bathing. 

GENUS  II.     ARGONAUTA.     Argonaut. 

No  cartilaginous  granules  on  the  back ;  the  pair  of  feet 
nearest  the  back  susceptible  of  dilatation,  at  their  extremity, 
into  a  large  membrane;  a  very  thin  shell,  symmetrically 
fluted,  spirally  convoluted,  and  somewhat  the  figure  of  a 
shallop ;  consequently  the  animal,  when  the  sea  is  calm,  uses 
it  as  a  boat,  employing  six  of  its  tentacula  as  oars,  and  up- 
lifting the  two,  which  are  spread  out  as  sails.  If  the  sea 
becomes  rough,  or  an  enemy  appears,  the  sails  and  oars  are 
instantly  drawn  within  the  shell,  and  the  shallop  sinks. 

GEWUS  III.     SEPIA.     Cuttle-Fish. 

Body  contained  in  a  sac  bordered  throughout  its  length 
by  a  narrow  fin,  and  inclosing  in  the  back  a  shell  formed  of 
an  infinity  of  very  small,  fine,  calcareous  laminae ;  mouth 
surrounded  with  ten  arms,  of  which  two  are  much  longer 
than  the  rest,  and  have  suckers  at  the  extremity  only. 


GASTEROPODA. 


This  is  a  class  including  a  great  number  of  Mollusca  of 
which  an  idea  may  be  obtained  from  the  Slug  and  the  Snail. 
Locomotion  effected  by  the  aid  of  a  fleshy  disk  placed  under 
the  abdomen ;  head  more  or  less  distinct  and  situated  anteri- 
orly, and  furnished  with  very  movable  appendages  (tentacula) 
placed  above  the  mouth,  and  which  are  the  seat  of  touch, 
perhaps  of  smell ;  eyes  very  small,  sometimes  entirely  want- 
ing, sometimes  adhering  to  the  head,  sometimes  fixed  at  the 
base,  side  or  point  of  the  tentacula;  respiratory  organs  of 


104  ANIMALIA  MOLLUSCA. 

various  forms,  and  upon  which  depends  the  division  of  these 
animals  into  eight  orders.     We  give  the  three  principal. 


ORDER  I.     PULMONEA. 

Respiration  effected  in  a  cavity  the  narrow  orifice  of  which 
they  open  and  shut  at  pleasure ;  no  branchiae ;  a  net-work  of 
pulmonary  vessels  creeps  over  the  parietes  of  the  respiratory 
cavity.  Some  inhabit  the  earth;  others  the  water;  the  latter 
are  obliged  to  rise  occasionally  to  the  surface,  and  open  the 
orifice  of  their  pectoral  cavity  to  breathe.  Two  remarkable 
genera. 

GENUS  I.     LIMAX,  Lin.     Slug. 

Naked  semi-cylindrical  Mollusca;  the  skin  forming  a  shield 
upon  the  back  containing  often  the  rudiments  of  a  shell ;  pul- 
monary orifice  at  the  right  side  of  this  buckler.  Three  re- 
markable subgenera. 

SUBGENUS  I.     LIMAX  PROPER,  Lara. 

Body  generally  elongated,  and  provided,  in  some  cases, 
with  a  small  oblong  and  flat  shell,  or  with  a  calcareous  con- 
cretion ;  orifice  of  the  respiratory  cavity  at  the  right  side  of 
this  species  of  buckler ;  four  tentacula  susceptible  of  protru- 
sion and  retraction  by  evolving  like  the  fingers  of  a  glove;  in 
the  mouth  a  single  jaw  in  form  of  a  dentelated  crescent. 

SUBGENUS  II.    VAGINULU?,  Ferus. 

Mantle  dense,  without  shell,  and  extending  over  the  whole 
length  of  the  body ;  four  tentacula.  [East  and  West  Indies.] 

SUBGENUS  III.    TESTACELLA,  Lam. 

Mantle  very  small,  placed  upon  the  posterior  extremity, 
containing  a  small  oval  shell  with  a  very  wide  aperture,  and 
a  very  small  spire;  this  shell  is  not  the  tenth  part  of  the  body 
in  length. 

GENUS  II.     IlEiiix,  Lin.     Snail. 

Shell  complete,  apparent  and  globular;  the  opening  a  little 
encroached  upon  by  the  projection  of  the  penultimate  turn  of 
the  spire,  and  circumscribed  in  the  form  of  a  crescent.  The 


ANIMALIA  MOLLUSCA.  105 

Romans  bred  them  in  parks,  and  fattened  them  for  food;  the 
most  esteemed  came  from  Sicily  and  Africa.  Snails  breed 
in  all  parts  of  the  world ;  moist  localities  are  those  in  which 
they  assemble,  through  preference,  during  summer ;  in  winter 
they  bury  themselves  in  the  earth,  or  under  walls,  and  the 
bark  of  trees. 


ORDER  II.     NUDIBRANCHIATA. 

No  shell  nor  pulmonary  cavity ;  branchiae  exposed  upon 
some  parts  of  the  back.  They  are  all  marine  animals,  fre- 
quently swimming  in  a  reversed  position,  making  the  sur- 
face of  the  feet  concave  like  a  boat,  and  aiding  themselves 
with  the  edges  of  their  mantle  and  their  tentacula  as  with 
oars.  Only  one  remarkable  genus. 

GENUS  DORIS,  Cuv. 

Branchiae  arranged  in  a  circle  on  the  posterior  part  of  the 
back,  under  the  form  of  little  arbusculse,  composing  altogether 
the  appearance  of  a  flower.  They  are  found  in  all  seas. 
Their  ova  resemble  gelatinous  bands  spread  upon  rocks  and 
marine  plants. 


ORDER  III.     PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 

Respiratory  organs  consisting  almost  always  of  branchiae, 
composed  of  laminae,  united  in  the  form  of  combs,  and  con- 
cealed in  a  dorsal  cavity  with  a  wide  opening  on  the  side  of 
the  head.  Almost  all  have  turbinated  shells,  with  the  mouth 
entire  or  provided  with  a  syphon,  and  generally  susceptible 
of  being  more  or  less  completely  closed  by  an  operculum  at- 
tached to  the  foot  of  the  animal  behind.  Four  remarkable 
genera. 

GENUS  I.     CONUS,  Lin.     Cone. 

Shell  conical,  with  the  apex  in  front;  the  spire  flat,  or 
slightly  projecting;  aperture  rectilinear,  very  close,  elongated, 


106 


ANIMALIA  MOLLUSCA. 


and  narrowed  by  an  enlargement  of  the  straight  edge  and  the 
folds  of  the  columella. 

GENUS  II.     CYPRJEA,  Lin.     Porcelain. 

Spire  projecting  but  little ;  aperture  narrow  and  extending 
from  one  extremity  to  the  other;  shell  resembling  the  half  of 
an  egg;  the  rounded  part  smooth  and  adorned  with  beautiful 
colours ;  the  under  side  flattened. 

GENUS  III.     PURPURA,  Brug.     Purple. 

Shell  oval  and  thick ;  columella  without  folds ;  provided 
with  a  short  canal  bent  to  the  left ;  last  whorl  of  the  spire 
very  large ;  aperture  very  wide. 

GENUS  IV.     CASSIS,  Brug.     Helmet. 

Shell  flattened  behind,  or  with  a  spire  only  slightly  pro- 
jecting; aperture  narrow,  long  and  terminated  anteriorly  by 
a  very  short  canal,  emarginated  and  reflected  to  the  rear; 
columella  indented  and  plicated. 


ACEPHALA. 


Mollusca  without  distinct  head,  whose  mouth,  having  no 
teeth,  is -concealed  under  the  mantle,  and  cannot  be  thrust 
forward,  so  that  the  animal  rather  receives  the  nutritive  mo- 
lecules brought  by  the  water  than  seizes  them  of  its  own 
accord ;  only  the  senses  of  touch  and  taste  are  certainly  ascer- 
tained to  exist.  This  class  includes  almost  all  the  bivalved 
shells,  a  great  number  of  the  multi  valves,  and  some  without 
shells.  The  mantle  opens  in  various  ways,  sometimes  before, 
sometimes  all  round,  and  then  again  only  upon  one  side; 
the  shell  is  closed  by  means  of  muscles  specially  destined  for 
that  purpose;  it  opens  by  the  action  of  an  elastic  ligament 


ANIMALIA  MOLLUSCA.  107 

placed  behind  the  hinge,  and  which  throws  open  the  valves 
when  the  muscles  relax. 

FAMILY  I.     OSTRACEA. 

The  mantle  open,  without  tubes  or  any  particular  aper- 
tures ;  foot  very  small  or  entirely  wanting ;  the  greater  part 
are  fixed  either  by  their  shells  or  by  their  threads  to  rocks  or 
other  bodies  under  water.  Two  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     OSTREA.     Oyster. 

No  foot ;  mantle  provided  with  a  double  range  of  fringes; 
shell  hinged,  inequivalved  and  laminated ;  hinge  without 
teeth;  ligament  small;  a  single  muscular  mass  extending 
from  one  valve  to  the  other. 

GENUS  II.     AVICULA,  Brug. 

Besides  the  single  transverse  muscular  mass,  another  fasci- 
culus extending  from  one  valve  to  the  other,  and  placed  before 
the  mouth.  Certain  species  are  called  Pintadinse,  the  most 
celebrated  of  which  yields  the  mother  of  pearl. 

FAMILY  II.     MYTILACEA. 

Mantle  opening  before,  with  another  separate  opening ;  all 
have  a  foot  used  in  crawling,  or  at  least  in  drawing  out, 
directing  and  placing  the  byssus.  Three  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     MYTILUS,  Lin.     Sea  Muscle. 

Shell  swoln  out  into  a  triangle  with  equal  valves;  one  is 
fixed  by  a  byssus.  [The  rocks  of  the  sea.] 

GENUS  II.     ANODONTEA. 

No  byssus ;  hinge  without  a  tooth  ;  in  the  interior  of  the 
shell  a  silvery  nacre,  and  sometimes  the  most  brilliant  co- 
lours, purple  and  pink.  [Fresh  waters.] 

GENUS  III.    UNIO. 

Shell  has  a  short  cavity  in  one  valve  near  the  hinge,  which 
receives  a  short  plate  or  tooth  of  the  other,  and  behind  it  is  a 
long  plate,  which  is  inserted  between  two  other  plates  on  the 
opposite  side.  [Fresh  waters ;  species  of  the  United  States 
numerous.] 

.• 

•••«• 

f  IT  SK  SI 


108  ANIMALIA  MOLLUSCA. 

FAMILY  III.     INCLUSA. 

Mantle  opening  at  the  anterior  end,  or  towards  the  middle, 
only  for  the  passage  of  the  foot,  and  prolonged  at  the  other 
end  into  a  double  tube,  which  issues  from  the  shell. 

GENUS  TEREDO. 

Mantle  prolonged  into  a  tunnel  much  longer  than  the  two 
little  rhomboidal  valves,  and  terminated  by  two  short  tubes, 
the  base  of  which  is  furnished  on  each  side  with  a  stony  and 
movable  pallette.  The  Teredo  penetrates  while  young  into 
the  wood  which  it  finds  submerged,  where,  by  the  aid  of  its 
valves,  it  digs  out  for  itself  a  residence,  enlarging  it  as  it 
grows  in  size. 


109 


Third  Great  Division  of  the  Animal  Kingdom. 


ANIMALIA  ARTICULATA. 


THIS  division  is  well,  characterized  by  an  external  articu- 
lated skeleton  in  the  form  of  a  sheath,  adapted,  according  to 
the  different  genera,  for  walking,  running,  swimming,  or  for 
flight.  This  skeleton  is  either  composed  of  hard  articulated 
rings  or  is  membranous  or  soft.  The  mode  of  connection  of 
the  articulations  of  the  limbs  is  by  two  points,  allowing  only 
a  hinge-like  motion ;  but  in  the  body  the  connection  is  by 
flexible  membranes  or  by  parts  fitting  into  each  other. 

The  Articulata  resemble  each  other  most  in  their  nervous 
system.  The  brain  is  situated  upon  the  oesophagus,  and 
supplies  the  parts  near  the  head  with  nerves.  A  double  row 
of  ganglia  extend  along  the  abdomen,  and  are  united  together 
and  with  the  brain  by  nervous  cords.  Each  of  these  supply 
the  place  of  additional  brains,  and  send  nerves  to  the  neigh- 
bouring parts. 

The  kind  of  respiration,  the  organs  of  circulation,  and  even 
the  colour  of  the  blood,  exhibit  so  much  difference,  as  to  re- 
quire separate  notice  in  each  class. 

The  classes  are  four.  The  Annulata  or  red  blooded 
worms ;  the  Crustacea ;  the  Arachnides,  and  the  Insecta. 


110  ANIMALIA  ARTICULATA. 


ANNULATA. 


Body  divided  into  numerous  rings ;  the  head  hardly  dis- 
tinct from  the  other  segments,  and  without  antennae  properly 
so  called ;  nervous  system  composed  of  a  long  series  of  gan- 
glions, one  pair  to  each  ring ;  eyes  scarcely  distinguishable, 
or  entirely  wanting  ;  never  organs  of  hearing  or  smell ;  skin 
soft,  never  stony  or  like  bark ;  no  articulated  feet ;  stiff  hairs, 
in  the  greater  number,  for  locomotion ;  respiration  either  by 
exterior  organs  analogous  to  branchiae,  or  by  interior  organs 
having  no  resemblance  to  tracheae,  or  even  by  the  surface  of 
the  skin ;  red  blood  inclosed  in  two  systems  of  vessels,  where 
it  moves  under  the  influence  of  contractile  pouches,  called 
hearts  by  some  authors ;  mouth  presenting  either  a  vent  hole 
or  a  long  piotractile  trunk,  or  small  horny  jaws ;  nearly  all 
live  in  the  water  (earth  worms  or  lumbrid  excepted);  all  ap- 
pear to  be  more  or  less  carnivorous.  Three  orders. 

ORDER  I.     TUBICOL^E. 

*/ 1  f« .  J  '     •(     'f^U'-f    i-"f   :.     '^-.'I         .'•?  "••   ?'.'*    i  rl  ^f'  '-'•  i.  '• '  '•  •':       '' 

Branchiae  in  the  form  of  tufts  or  arbusculae,  attached  to  the 
head  or  anterior  part  of  the  body ;  ordinary  habitation  in 
horny  or  calcareous  tubes  formed  by  a  transudation  of  the 
skin  of  the  animal,  or  by  fragments  of  shells  and  particles  of 
mud  agglutinated  upon  a  membrane  secreted  by  the  animal. 

All  the  species  live  in  the  sea. 

r      .  .-affl  •  ^^mcrTO  ofit 

GENUS  AMPHITRITE,  Cuv. 

The  Amphitrite  are  known  by  the  gold  coloured  setae, 
arranged  like  a  crown  or  the  teeth  of  a  comb  on  the  fore  part 
of  their  head  ;  their  mouth  is  surrounded  by  numerous  ten- 
tacula. 


ANIMALIA  ARTICULATA.  Ill 

ORDER  II.    DORSIBRANCHIATA. 

Branchiae  in  the  form  of  tufts,  arbusculae,  laminae  or  tuber- 
cles placed  upon  the  middle  of  the  body,  or  along  the  sides  ; 
most  species  live  in  the  mud,  or  swirn  freely  in  the  sea ;  a 
few  have  tubes. 

GENUS  APHRODITA,  Lin. 

Back  covered  by  two  longitudinal  ranges  of  scales,  under 
which  are  concealed  the  branchiae ;  body  usually  flat,  short 
and  broad. 


ORDER  III.     ABRANCHIATE. 

No  apparent  branchiae  ;  respiration  by  the  surface  of  the 
skin,  or,  as  it  is  thought,  in  some  by  internal  cavities;  the 
greater  part  live  free  in  the  water  or  mud,  some  in  the  moist 
earth.  Two  families ;  one  of  which  have  setae,  the  other  is 
without  any. 

FAMILY  I.     ABRANCHIATE  SETIGEILE. 

One  remarkable  genus. 

;  V     LUMBRICI,  Lin.     Earth-Worms. 

Body  long,  cylindrical  and  formed  by  a  great  number  of 
rings ;  no  eyes,  tentacula  or  branchiae ;  mouth  without  teeth ; 
the  common  Worm  is  so  widely  disseminated  as  to  be  uni- 
versally known;  its  body,  which  sometimes  attains  the  length 
of  a  foot,  includes  more  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  rings, 
each  having  eight  hairs  beneath  ;  it  feeds  on  vegetable  matter 
or  animal  substances. 

Circulation  of  the  Earth- Worm,  PL  31,  Fig.  1 :  A,  dorsal 
vessel ;  B,  abdominal  vessel ;  C,  subnervous  vessel ;  D,  mo- 
liniform  vessels  or  hearts ;  E,  deep  seated  abdomino-dorsal 
vessels ;  F,  superficial  abdomino-dorsal  vessels. 

The  mixed  blood  of  the  dorsal  vessel  A  is  conveyed,  by 
the  contractions  of  the  hearts  D,  into  the  abdominal  vessel  B, 
which  distributes  it  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body  ;  thence 


112  ANIMALIA  ARTICULATA. 

it  returns,  as  venous  blood,  through  the  vessels  E,  into  the 
dorsal  vessel,  which  transmits  it  into  the  vessel  C,  where, 
after  having  regained  its  nutritive  properties,  it  returns,  by 
the  vessels  F,  into  the  dorsal  vessel,  and  there  mixes  with  the 
venous  blood  brought  by  the  vessels  E. 

FAMILY  II.     ABRANCHIATE  ASETIGERE. 

One  remarkable  genus. 

HIRUDO,  Lin.     Leech. 

Body  elongated,  flat  beneath,  convex  above,  soft,  retractile, 
and  composed  of  a  great  number  of  segments ;  small  aper- 
tures are  to  be  observed  in  the  inferior  surface  and  upon  the 
sides,  corresponding  to  small  vesicles,  considered  by  some 
authors  as  organs  of  respiration  ;  mouth  sometimes  composed 
(as  in  the  medicinal  species)  of  a  vent-hole,  encircled  by  a 
lip,  at  the  bottom  of  which  are  three  jaws,  each  armed  upon 
the  edge  with  two  rows  of  very  fine  teeth ;  sometimes  the 
teeth  are  few  and  blunt ;  sometimes  the  mouth  is  entirely 
without  horny  points;  crawling  is  effected  by  means  of  the 
disk  at  the  mouth,  and  another  placed  at  the  posterior  part 
of  the  body. 

Pulmonary  circulation  of  the  Leech,  PL  31,  Fig.  2 :  A,  a 
lateral  vessel;  B,  pulmonary  auricle;  C,  latero-dorsal  vessel; 
D,  a  latero-abdominal  vessel;  E,  pulmonary  vessel ;  F,  pul- 
monary pouch. 

In  the  Leech  there  are  four  longitudinal  trunks,  one  of 
which  is  the  dorsal  vessel,  another  the  subnervous,  and  the 
other  two  are  abdominal  vessels.  These  vessels  all  commu- 
nicate with  each  other  both  by  capillaries  and  by  large 
branches  (C,  D).  From  these  branches  are  given  off  the 
vessels  destined  for  general  nutrition  and  cutaneous  respira- 
tion ;  but  there  is  likewise  a  pulmonary  respiration  carried 
on  by  means  of  a  double  apparatus,  consisting  of  particular 
vessels  and  a  pulmonary  pouch  (F).  The  blood  passes  from 
the  vessel  D  through  E  into  the  capillaries  on  the  surface  of 
the  pouch  F ;  it  returns  from  thence  through  the  pulmonary 
auricle  B  into  the  lateral  vessel  A. 


ANIMALIA  ARTICULATA.  113 


CRUSTACEA. 


Body  divided  into  rings  more  or  less  distinct,  movable,  of 
considerable  consistency  (horny  or  calcareous),  and  having  a 
double  series  of  articulated  membranes  constituting  one  or 
more,  frequently  two  pairs  of  antennae ;  several  jaws  or  other 
organs  serving  for  prehension  of  food ;  several  pairs  of  nata- 
tory or  ambulatory  feet  (in  general  five  or  seven  pairs);  ner- 
vous system  composed  either,  of  a  great  number  of  similar 
nervous  swellings,  disposed  by  pairs,  and  united  so  as  to 
form  two  gangl ionic  chains,  distant  from  each  other,  and  ex- 
tending throughout  the  length  of  the  body,  or  of  two  ganglions 
dissimilar  in  form,  volume  and  disposition,  but  always  simple 
and  single,  and  situated  one  on  the  head,  the  other  on  the 
thorax.  Circulation . complete ;  heart  aortic;  respiration  by 
branchiae;  eyes  compound,  in  a  few  cases  simple,  and  de- 
scending, by  successive  modifications  of  organization,  to  pe- 
diculated  eyes  with  facets^  composed  each  of  an  hexagonal 
or  square  corneal,  a  conical  crystalline,  or  vitreous  body,  and 
a  gelatinous  substance,  surrounded,  as  well  as  the  crystalline, 
with  a  colouring  matter,  and  considered  as  an  expansion  of 
the  optic  nerve.  Almost  always  there  is  ah  auditory  appa- 
ratus which  consists  in  a  small  tubercle  situated  between  the 
mouth  and  the  base  of  the  external  antennae,  including  a 
vessel  filled  with  an  aqueous  liquid.  Three  remarkable 
orders. 


ORDER  DECAPODA. 

Rings  of  the  head  and  thorax  soldered  together  and  con- 
cealed under  an  enormous  carapax  which  extends  to  the  ab- 
p 


114  ANIMALIA  ARTICULATA. 

domen;  branchise  formed  of  lamellse  or  filaments,  always 
simple  and  inserted  in  the  internal  paries  of  a  special  cavity 
situated  on  each  side  of  the  thorax,  and  formed  by  the  lateral 
prolongation  of  the  carapax ;  heart  nearly  quadrilateral,  situ- 
ated in  the  middle  of  the  thorax ;  from  this  heart  spring  six 
principal  arteries,  distributing  the  blood  through  all  parts  of 
the  body ;  buccal  apparatus  extremely  complicated,  and  com- 
posed of  a  lip,  small  tongue,  and  six  pairs  of  members,  viz. 
a  pair  of  mandibles,  two  pairs  of  jaws,  and  three  pairs  of  foot 
jaws;  five  pairs  of  true  feet,  formed  of  six  articulations;  1, 
the  coxa  or  hip ;  2,  the  femur  or  thigh ;  3,  the  tibia  or  leg ; 
and  the  true  foot,  consisting  of,  4,  the  carpus ;  5,  the  pollex ; 
6,  the  index.  Four  antennae  inserted  between  the  eyes  and 
mouth ;  eyes  with  facets,  pedunculated  and  movable.  Two 
families. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  A,  PL  33.  Respiratory  apparatus  of  a 
Decapoda :  1,  branchiae ;  2,  venous  sinus ;  3,  vessel  carrying 
out  blood ;  4,  vessels  returning  blood ;  5,  heart ;  6,  sternal 
artery.  The  small  arrows  show  the  course  of  the  blood 
through  the  vessels. 

FAMILY  OF  THE  BRACHYURA. 

Tail  but  little  developed,  hardly  of  any  use  in  locomotion, 
without  false  natatory  feet,  never  terminated  by  a  fin,  in  the 
form  of  a  fan,  and  doubled  up  under  the  body.  Three  re- 
markable genera. 

GENUS  PORTUNUS,  Fabr. 

The  two  posterior  feet  terminating  in  fins ;  shell  forming 
the  segment  of  a  circle,  wider  than  long ;  dilated  before,  nar- 
rowed behind  ;  short  ocular  pedicles ;  tail  of  the  males  with 
five  distinct  rings,  seven  in  the  females. 

GENUS  CANCER,  Fabr.     Crab  proper. 

Posterior  feet  ambulatory;  carapax  at  least  once  and  a  half 
as  wide  as  long,  of  a  tolerably  regular  oval,  and  very  convex 
above ;  anterior  feet  thick  and  short 

GENUS  GECARCINUS.     Leech. 

Shell  in  the  form  of  a  heart,  thick,  without  teeth  or  spines; 
pedicles  of  the  eyes  short  and  lodged  in  rounded  cavities; 


ANIMALIA  ARTICULATA.  115 

foot-jaws  wide  apart,  leaving  exposed  a  portion  of  the  interior 
of  the  mouth. 


FAMILY  OF  THE  MACROURA. 

Tail  well  developed,  generally  longer  than  the  cephalo- 
thoracic  portion  of  the  body,  extending  behind  and  employed 
in  natation ;  it  has  always  beneath  it  lamellous  false  feet,  and 
at  its  extremity  a  fin  in  the  form  of  a  fan.  Four  remarkable 
genera. 

GENUS  PAGURUS,  Fabr.     Hermit  Crabs. 

Body  elongated;  tail  extended,  at  least  as  long  as  the 
trunk ;  the  four  last  feet  much  shorter  than  the  preceding ; 
posterior  part  of  the  body  entirely  soft.  Inhabit  marine 
shells. 

GENUS  PAL.SJMON,  Fabr.     Prawns. 

Body  of  a  less  solid  consistence  than  that  of  the  other 
Crustacea,  arcuated,  and,  as  it  were,  hunch-backed;  the  fore- 
head prolonged  into  a  beak-like  point ;  lateral  antennae  very 
long ;  the  intermediate  with  three  filaments ;  carpus  inarti- 
culated  ;  second  feet  the  longest. 

GENUS  ASTACUS,  Fabr.    Lobster. 

The  three  first  pairs  of  feet  terminated  by  a  dydactile 
hand,  the  first  enormous  and  like  a  forceps;  tail  fan-like  with 
lateral  plates  divided  transversely. 

GENUS  PALINURUS,  Fab. 

Lateral  antennas  hairy,  exceedingly  long  and  thick;  feet 
simple ;  only  four  pair  of  false  feet. 


ORDER  AMPHIPODA. 

Eyes  sessile  and  immovable ;  no  carapax ;  body  composed 
of  rings ;  four  first  foot-jaws  serving  for  locomotion ;  no  pro- 
per branchiae ;  mandibles  provided  with  a  palpus;  the  five 
first  pairs  of  abdominal  limbs  aiding  locomotion  and  not 
branchial;  palpi  of  the  thoracic  limbs  vesicular  and  bran- 
chial. Two  remarkable  genera. 


ANIMALIA  ART1CULATA. 
GENUS  PHRONIMA,  Lat. 

Four  anterior  pair  of  feet  in  the  form  of  a  hook;  fifth  didac- 
tyle;  antennae  two;  appendages  of  the  tail  six,  styliform  and 
forked. 

GENUS  TALIPRUS,  Lat. 

No  foot  in  form  of  a  hook ;  the  haunch  of  the  last  pair  of 
feet  very  large. 


ORDER  ISOPODA. 

Characteristics  of  the  preceding  order ;  no  palpi,  however, 
to  the  mandibles;  seldom  any  proper  branchiae;  the  first  five 
pairs  of  false  abdominal  feet  branchial. 

GENUS  ONISCUS,  Lin.     Wood-Louse. 

• 

Four  antennse  (of  which  only  the  lateral  ones  are  very 
apparent)  with  eight  articulations,  and  covered  at  base  by 
the  lateral  edges  of  the  head ;  they  inhabit  dark  and  moist 
places. 


ARACHNIDES. 


Skin  like  bark,  but  neither  horny  nor  calcareous ;  head 
confounded  with  the  thorax;  abdomen  distinct;  never  wings; 
antennae  replaced  by  articulated  pieces  (chelicerae)  terminated 
by  one  or  two  movable  hooks ;  from  two  to  twelve  eyes  grouped 
in  various  ways ;  never  composite  eyes ;  generally  four  pair 
of  feet  inserted  in  the  thorax,  and  terminated  by  two,  some- 
times three  hooks ;  nervous  system  composed  of  two  cords 
which,  except  in  the  case  of  Scorpions,  have  but  three  gan- 
glions; respiration  by  pulmonary  sacs  placed  under  the 
abdomen,  or  by  ramified  tracheae,  communicating  with  the 


ANIMALIA  ARTICULATA.  117 

external  air  by  fissures  or  apertures  called  stigmata  or  spira- 
cula ;  there  are  from  two  to  eight  of  them.  Blood  white ; 
circulation  in  accordance  with  the  mode  of  respiration.  The 
most  of  them  feed  on  Insects;  either  seizing  them  in  the 
silky  web  which  it  fabricates,  or  catching  them  by  running, 
or  leaping  upon  them  when  they  approach  too  near  their 
retreat.  Others  live  as  Parasites,  upon  Vertebrated  Animals; 
a  certain  species  are  found  only  in  flour,  upon  cheese,  and 
different  vegetables. 


ORDER  I.     PULMONARIA. 

Respiration  by  pulmonary  sacs  placed  under  the  abdomen, 
and  communicating  with  the  exterior  air  by  spiracula,  some- 
times there  are  eight,  four  on  each  side,  sometimes  four,  or 
two ;  from  six  to  eight  smooth  eyes ;  heart  consisting  of  a 
large  cylindrical  vessel,  sending  the  blood  through  the  arte- 
ries to  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  receiving  by 
the  veins  that  which  has  traversed  the  respiratory  organs. 
Always  four  pairs  of  feet.  Two  remarkable  families. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  B,  PL  33.  Circulation  of  Pulmonaria : 
1,  the  heart;  2,  artery  carrying  blood  to  the  head;  3,  respi- 
ratory apparatus ;  4,  vessels  which  reconvey  the  blood  from 
the  pulmonary  sacs  to  the  heart. 

FAMILY  I.     ARANEIDES. 

Foot-palpi  without  forceps  at  the  end,  and  terminated  at 
most  by  one  small  hook ;  four,  or  two,  pulmonary  pouches ; 
.last  articulation  of  the  chelicerse  pierced  near  its  extremity, 
for  the  issue  of  a  poison,  proceeding  from  a  gland  placed  in 
the  preceding  joint.  Abdomen  soft,  and  furnished,  in  ally 
with  four  or  six  nipples,  fleshy  at  the  end,  cylindrical  or 
conical,  articulated,  situated  very  close  to  each  other,  and 
pierced  at  the  extremity  with  an  infinity  of  little  holes,  for 
the  passage  of  a  silky  thread,  issuing  from  reservoirs  within. 
Legs  composed  of  seven  articulations,  of  which  the  two  first 
form  the  hip,  the  next  the  thigh,  the  fourth  and  the  fifth  the 
tibia,  and  the  two  others  the  tarsus  terminated  by  two  or 


118  ANIMALIA  ARTICULATA. 

three  hooks,  of  which  two  only  are  dentelated  like  a  comb. 
Eyes  smooth  and  glistening  in  the  dark.     Two  genera. 

GENUS  MYGALE,  Walck. 

Eight  eyes  situated  at  the  extremity  of  the  thorax  and  ge- 
nerally very  close  together;  four  pulmonary  pouches;  hairs 
on  the  tarsi  concealing  the  hooks.  These  are  often  called 
Crab-Spiders;  their  bites  are  considered  dangerous;  the 
Mygale  Avicularia  will  destroy  a  Humming  Bird.  The  My- 
gale  Csementaria,  or  mason,  is  remarkable  for  its  industry ; 
it  digs  subterranean  galleries,  one  or  two  feet  deep,  in  decli- 
vities, or  places  secure  from  inundation ;  these  galleries  it 
lines  with  fine  silk,  closing  up  the  entrance  by  means  of  a 
solid  trap,  which  fits  with  a  hinge  to  the  opening ;  this  trap 
shuts  of  its  own  accord  and  closes  the  dwelling  of  the  inge- 
nious animal. 

GENUS  ARANEA,  Lin. 

Never  more  than  two  pulmonary  pouches ;  contains  two 
tribes. 

Tribe  of  Sedentary  Jlranex. 

These  weave  webs ;  or  at  least  cast  abroad  threads  to  sur- 
prise their  prey,  and  always  remain  in  these  traps  or  their 
vicinity,  as  well  as  near  their  eggs. 

SUBGENUS  CLOTHO,  Walck. 

Eyes  arranged  in  a  triangle.  These  Spiders  attach  to 
stones  a  kind  of  tent,  the  exterior  of  which  resembles  the 
finest  taffety;  it  is  composed,  according  to  the  age  of  the 
animal,  of  a  greater  or  less  number  of  layers ;  the  top  of  the 
stone  within  is  furnished  with  a  kind  of  carpet  of  extreme 
whiteness  and  softness.  An  imperceptible  window,  produced 
by  the  separation  of  two  portions  of  the  exterior  envelope  cross- 
ing each  other,  serves  as  a  gate  to  the  dwelling. 

SUBGENPS  ARANEA  PROPER. 

Eyes  arranged  in  a  slightly  curved  line.  These  construct 
in  the  interior  of  our  houses,  in  angles  of  walls,  upon  plants, 
hedges,  and  often  upon  road  sides,  either  in  the  earth  or  under 
stones,  an  angular  web,  to  the  upper  part  of  which  is  a  tube 


ANIMALIA  ARTICULATA.  119 

in  which  they  remain  motionless.  They  are  remarkable  for 
the  care  which  they  take  of  their  eggs,  and  the  industry 
which  they  exhibit  in  the  construction  of  their  nests. 

Tribe  of  Vagabond  Spiders. 

Two,  or  four  of  their  eyes  often  much  larger  than  the  rest; 
thorax  large ;  feet  robust ;  they  construct  no  webs,  but  watch 
for  their  prey  and  seize  it  by  hunting  it  down  or  leaping  upon 
it.  One  remarkable  subgenus. 

SUBGENUS  LYCOSA. 

Holes  excavated  in  the  earth,  and  the  walls  of  which  are 
fortified  by  threads  which  prevent  their  caving  in,  are  the 
dwellings  of  these  animals;  here  they  pass  the  winter,  some- 
time closing  the  entrance.  At  the  door  of  this  residence  they 
lie  in  wait  for  prey.  The  female  carries  about  with  her 
every  where  the  cocoon  containing  her  eggs,  having  attached 
them  to  her  abdomen  with  silk.  The  young  progeny  thus 
enclosed,  live  in  this  way  some  time,  grouped  about  the  ab- 
domen of  the  mother,  and  giving  her  a  hideous  appearance. 
The  bite  of  the  Lycosa  Tarentula  was  formerly  considered 
very  dangerous — incurable  it  was  supposed — except  with  the 
aid  of  music. 

FAMILY  II.    PEDIPALPI. 

Palpi  very  large,  in  the  form  of  projecting  arms  terminated 
by  a  forceps  or  claw.  Chelicerse  of  two  fingers,  one  of  which 
is  movable.  Abdomen  composed  of  segments  very  distinct, 
and  with  out  fusi\  the  whole  body  clothed  in  a  tolerably  solid 
dermis;  two,  or  four  pairs  of  pulmonary  sacs.  One  remark- 
able genus. 

GENUS  SCORPIO. 

Abdomen  intimately  united  with  the  thorax ;  tail  of  six 
joints,  knotty,  slim,  and  terminated  by  a  sting.  Nervous 
system  presenting  seven  ganglions.  They  live  upon  the 
ground  or  under  heaps  of  stones ;  many  species  in  houses. 
The  number  of  Scorpions  met  with  in  certain  countries  is 
sometimes  so  considerable  that,  as  some  travellers  relate,  the 
inhabitants  have  been  forced  to  abandon  them.  In  spite  of 


120  ANIMALIA  ARTICULATA. 

all  that  has  been  said  respecting  the  dangerous  sting  of  these 
animals,  the  consequence  is  not  usually  very  serious,  and  acci- 
dents, when  occurring,  have  been  occasioned  by  ignorant  and 
absurd  treatment.  M  lian  relates  that  the  priests  of  Isis  at  Cop- 
tos  in  Egypt  trampled  with  impunity  upon  the  very  numerous 
Scorpions  of  that  town;  and  it  is  certain  that  the  introduc- 
tion of  poison  from  the  sting  of  the  European  animal  is  at- 
tended with  but  trifling  results.  Certain  naturalists  pretend 
that  the  Black  Scorpion,  living  among  the  rocks  of  Africa, 
will  cause  the  death  of  a  man,  with  its  sting,  in  less  than 
two  hours.  It  is  not  true  that  the  animal  turns  its  sting  upon 
itself  when  placed  within  a  circle  of  fire. 


ORDER  II.     TRACHEARLE. 

Respiratory  organs  consisting  in  radiated,  or  ramified 
tracheae,  receiving  air  by  two  apertures  or  stigmata  only ;  no 
veins,  or  arteries.  From  two  to  four  eyes.  One  remark- 
able family. 

FAMILY  HOLETRA. 

Thorax  and  abdomen  united  in  one  mass  under  a  common 
epidermis;  generally  eight  feet,  sometimes  only  six.  Two 
remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  ACARUS.     Mite. 

Sometimes  chelicerse,  but  simply  formed  of  a  single  forceps, 
either  didactyle  or  monodactyle ;  sometimes  a  sucker  composed 
of  laminae  in  the  form  of  a  lancet,  and  united.  Sometimes  in 
place  of  a  mouth  is  a  mere  cavity,  without  other  apparent  ap- 
paratus. The  most  of  these  animals  are  very  small,  even 
microscopic ;  some  are  vagabond,  and  to  be  met  with  upon 
stones,  leaves,  the  bark  of  trees,  in  earth,  water,  flour,  putre- 
fied meat  and  old  cheese ;  others  live  parasitically  upon  the 
skin,  or  in  the  flesh,  of  diverse  animals;  they  have  even  been 
observed  in  the  brain  and  eyes  of  animals. 


ANIMALIA  ARTICULATA.  1S1 

GENUS  IXODES,  Lat.     Tick. 

Legs  eight,  no  chelicerse,  palpi  projecting,  serving  as  a 
sheath  to  the  sucker,  sucker  hard  and  dentated,  body  covered 
with  a  hard  skin;  Parasitical  animals,  they  are  found  in  thick 
woods,  and  fasten  themselves  upon  Oxen,  Horses,  Dogs,  &c., 
so  strongly  that  they  can  only  be  detached  by  force. 


INSECTA. 


We  now  enter  upon  that  department  of  Natural  History 
which  treats  of  Insects ;  by  the  study  of  which  we  are  con- 
ducted into  a  province  the  most  extensive,  and  by  far  the 
most  populous  of  the  whole  empire  of  nature.  The  residence 
of  quadrupeds,  as  we  have  seen,  is  confined  to  the  land ;  that 
of  fishes  to  the  water ;  while  birds  are  enabled  to  rise  from 
the  surface  of  these  elements  into  the  aerial  regions.  Nature, 
however,  has  assigned  a  still  more  extensive  range  to  those 
animals  upon  whose  history  we  are  now  entering.  They  are 
found  to  pervade  every  part  of  her  dominions,  in  numbers 
that  defy  all  computation ;  for  in  nothing  does  the  immensity 
of  her  works  more  strikingly  appear  than  in  the  infinite  num- 
ber and  variety  of  these  smaller  productions. 

But  although  a  complete  history  of  the  operations  of  nature 
in  this  large  and  populous  part  of  her  empire  cannot  be  ex- 
pected, yet  such  a  general  picture  may  be  given  as  shall  de- 
monstrate the  existence  of  that  great  vivifying  principle  by 
which  she  is  animated,  and  by  which  she  is  enabled  continu- 
ally to  pour  forth  into  existence  such  immense  numbers  of 
organized  beings.  A  lucid  classification  of  such  Insects  as 
most  frequently  occur,  and  whose  manners  are  best  known, 
presents  to  us  a  pleasing  view  of  that  protection  which  Pro- 
Q 


122  INSECTA. 

vidence  affords  even  to  the  smallest  of  its  creatures ;  of  the 
means  it  employs  for  perpetuating  them,  and  of  that  great 
arrangement  of  nature  by  which  one  set  of  living  beings  find 
subsistence  by  devouring  another,  and  by  which  life  is  con- 
tinued through  every  part  of  the  creation  without  a  pause. 

Insects  have  a  dorsal  vessel  analogous  to  a  heart,  but  no 
vessels  for  circulation  ;  respiration  is  performed  by  means  of 
tracheae  extending  parallel  to  each  other  throughout  the  body, 
communicating  at  intervals  with  stigmata  or  external  open- 
ings, which  admit  air.  The  nervous  system  of  most  Insects 
consists  of  two  principal  and  twelve  inferior  ganglions,  each 
of  which  distribute  nerves  to  the  neighbouring  parts.  The 
digestive  apparatus  is  various  according  to  their  aliment. 

The  head  bears  the  antennae,  eyes  and  mouth ;  the  eyes 
are  either  simple  or  compound ;  the  latter  have  a  cornea  with 
many  small  facets,  and  more  or  less  convex,  but  in  the  former 
it  is  smooth ;  the  eyes  are  generally  three  in  number,  seated 
on  the  top  of  the  head  in  a  triangular  form ;  the  mouth  con- 
sists of  six  parts,  the  two  upper  of  which  are  called  mandi- 
bles, the  rest  maxilla  ox  jaws  ;  these  latter  are  furnished  with 
articulated  filaments  called  palpi. 

The  trunk  of  insects  is  called  thorax  or  corselet]  it  is  com- 
posed of  three  segments,  affording  points  of  attachment  for 
the  legs  and  wings.  These  are  denominated  the  prothorax, 
the  mesothorax  and  the  metathorax.  Sometimes,  as  in  the 
Coleoptera,  the  anterior,  much  the  largest  and  separated  from 
the  succeeding  by  an  articulation,  appears  to  form  the  whole 
trunk,  and  is  called  thorax  or  corselet. 

The  wings  are  membranous,  dry  and  elastic  organs,  com- 
monly translucent  and  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  back  of  the 
thorax ;  when  they  are  four  the  first  pair  is  joined  to  the 
second,  and  the  other  to  the  third  segment  of  the  thorax, 
when  only  two  to  the  second  segment.  They  are  formed  of 
two  membranes,  traversed  by  numerous  nervures,  which  are 
tracheal  tubes.  The  wings  are  either  two  or  four  in  number; 
when  only  two,  an  opaque  species  of  scale  (elytra),  more  or 
less  solid,  and  which  opens  and  shuts,  takes  the  place  of  the 
anterior  wings  in  many  Insects,  and  beneath  this  the  wings 
are  folded  when  at  rest. 


INSECTA.  123 

The  organs  of  locomotion  consist  of  a  coxa  of  two  pieces,  a 
femur,  an  unarticulated  tibia  and  a  tarsus.  The  number  of 
phalanges  vary  from  three  to  five,,  and  the  last  joint  is  usually 
terminated  by  two  hooks. 

The  abdomen  presents  nine  or  ten  segments,  some  of  which 
are  however  frequently  reduced. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  A,  PL  34,  Aptera:  1,  the  head;  2, 
the  maxillary  palpi ;  3,  three  segments  of  the  thorax ;  4,  an- 
terior wing  of  the  mesothorax ;  5,  posterior  wing  of  the  me- 
sothorax;  6,  the  thigh  (femur);  7,  tibia;  8,  tarsus. 

Fig.  A,  PL  35.  Coleoptera:  1,  the  head;  2,  the  protho- 
rax ;  3,  the  corselet ;  4,  the  mesothorax ;  5,  the  rnetathorax ; 
6,  the  elytra ;  7,  the  wings ;  8,  the  two  first  rings  of  the  ab- 
domen. 

There  are  some  Insects  which  pass  through  their  stages  of 
life  under  three  different  forms;  viz.,  that  of  larvce,  of  pupa, 
and  of  perfect  Insects ;  these  changes  are  termed  the  meta- 
morphosis. The  Butterfly  is  an  example  :  the  eggs  of  the 
Butterfly  are  hatched  and  produce  animals,  called  Caterpil- 
lars, with  an  elongated  body,  divided  into  rings,  having  a 
head  with  jaws  and  several  small  eyes ;  feet  six,  scaly  and 
anterior,  the  rest  membranous  and  posterior.  In  this  state 
these  animals  live  for  some  time,  frequently  changing  their 
skin  ;  finally  from  the  skin  of  the  Caterpillar  issues  a  totally 
different  being,  of  an  oblong  form  and  without  distinct  limbs, 
it  soon  ceases  to  move,  and  remains  a  long  time  apparently 
dead,  and  is  called  a  Chrysalis.  In  time  the  skin  of  the 
Chrysalis  splits,  and  therefrom  issues  the  Butterfly,  moist  and 
with  short  flabby  wings ;  it  soon  however  dries,  the  wings 
enlarge,  and  the  animal  is  perfect  and  ready  for  flight. 

All  Insects  do  not  pass  through  these  stages.  Those  with- 
out wings  do  not  change,  and  are  said  to  be  without  meta- 
morphosis. Of  those  which  have  wings  many  only  experi- 
rience  the  change  of  receiving  them ;  these  are  said  to  undergo 
a  semi-metamorphosis.  The  remainder  are  said  to  experience 
a  complete  metamorphosis. 


124  INSECTA. 


ORDER  I.     APTERA. 

Insects  without  wings  and  without  metamorphosis ;  that  is 
to  say,  maintaining  always  the  form  in  which  they  issue  from 
the  egg. 

•  ••  /"  '•'•.'      "  '      *•     -  •  .   -  •  ."     '*'         •     ~         '•.**•-:-•' 

FAMILY  I.     MYRIAPODA.     CENTIPEDES. 

Body  very  much  elongated  and  composed  of  a  series  of  si- 
milar annuli,  each  of  which  sustains  one  or  two  pairs  of  feet; 
the  number  of  the  rings  and  feet  augmenting  with  the  age  of 
the  animal ;  abdomen  not  distinct  from  the  thorax ;  head  pro- 
vided with  two  eyes  formed  by  an  union  of  smooth  ocelli 
(little  eggs) ;  two  antennae  ;  a  mouth  armed  with  jaws.  They 
live  in  the  earth,  and  under  different  bodies  placed  upon  its 
surface. 

.    '  .„•*-•> 

FAMILY  II.     PARASITA. 

Six  feet  only ;  abdomen  without  articulated  and  movable 
appendages  ;  two,  or  four,  small  smooth  eyes  ;  a  great  portion 
of  the  mouth  internal,  and  exhibiting  externally  either  a  snout 
or  projecting  mammilla,  containing  a  retractile  sucker,  or  two 
membranous  and  approximated  lips,  with  two  hooked  man- 
dibles. Body  flattened,  transparent,  divided  into  eleven  or 
twelve  segments,  of  which  three  belong  to  the  trunk,  and 
have  each  a  pair  of  feet.  They  dwell  constantly  upon  the 
same  Quadrupeds  and  Birds,  whose  blood  they  suck.  So  great 
is  their  fecundity,  that  it  has  been  calculated  their  females,  in 
two  months,  can  give  birth  to  eighteen  thousand  young. 
Certain  people,  called  Phtirophages,  such  as  the  Hottentots 
and  New  Zealanders,  eat  these  disgusting  animals. 

GENUS  I.     PEDICULUS,  Deg.     True  Louse. 

Mouth  exhibiting  externally  a  very  small  mammilla,  con- 
taining a  sucker.  Tarsi  composed  of  one  articulation,  almost 
equal  in  size  to  the  tibia,  and  terminated  by  a  very  stout  nail, 
folding  over  a  projection,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  tooth,  whose 
office  is  that  of  a  forceps. 


INSECTA.  125 

GENUS  II.     RICINUS,  Deg. 

Mouth  composed  externally  of  two  lips  and  two  mandibles, 
resembling  hooks ;  tarsi  articulated  and  terminated  by  two 
equal  hooks.  All,  with  the  exception  of  the  Dog  species,  live 
upon  Birds. 

FAMILY  III.     SUCTORIA. 

Instead  of  a  mouth  a  sucker  of  three  pieces,  included  be- 
tween two  laminse,  forming,  together,  a  trunk  or  beak,  either 
cylindrical  or  conical.  Only  one  genus. 

PULEX,  Lin.     Flea. 

Body  oval,  compressed,  clothed  with  a  sufficiently  firm 
skin,  and  divided  into  twelve  segments.  Head  small,  with  a 
little  round  eye  on  each  side.  Feet  strong,  particularly  the 
hind  ones,  which  are  the  longest,  and  enable  these  animals  to 
leap  more  than  two  hundred  times  their  own  height.  Fleas 
are  not  born  under  the  form  in  which  we  recognize  them ; 
their  eggs  produce  little  larvae,  without  feet,  and  like  worms; 
they  are  exceedingly  lively,  rolling  themselves  into  a  circle, 
or  spirally,  and  crawling  with  a  serpentine  motion ;  they  are 
at  first  white,  and  then  reddish.  After  remaining  for  twelve 
days  in  this  shape,  they  enclose  themselves  in  a  little  silky 
cocoon,  where  they  become  nymphs,  and  whence  they  issue 
in  the  perfect  state  at  the  expiration  of  twelve  days  again.  A 
particular  species,  known  in  America  bv  the  name  of  chigre, 
introduces  itself  under  the  nails  of  the  feet  and  hands,  and 
beneath  the  skin  of  the  heel,  and  there  soon  acquires  the  vo- 
lume of  a  small  pea,  by  the  rapid  growth  of  the  eggs  which  it 
carries  in  a  membranous  sac  beneath  the  abdomen. 


ORDER  II.     COLEOPTERA. 

Four  wings,  of  which  the  superior,  called  elytra,  are  gene- 
rally hard,  thick  and  short,  serving  as  cases  for  the  inferior, 
which  are  membranous,  and  folded  transversely;  head  pro- 
vided with  two  antennse,  of  various  forms,  and  almost  always 


126  INSECTA. 

with  eleven  articulations ;  two  eyes,  with  facets ;  no  smooth 
eyes ;  mouth  composed  of  a  labrum,  or  upper  lip,  a  pair  of 
mandibles  of  a  scaly  consistence,  a  pair  of  jaws  having  each 
one  or  two  pair  of  palpi,  and  a  labium,  having  a  pair  of  labial 
palpi.  Larva  vermiform,  with  six  short  feet ;  nymph  inactive, 
with  limbs  visible  ;  metamorphosis  complete.  They  are  the 
best  known  and  most  numerous  of  insects.  Four  sections. 

Section  I.     Pentamera. 
Five  articulations  in  each  tarsus.     Four  families. 

FAMILY  I.     CARNIVORA. 

Two  pairs  of  maxillary  palpi,  and  one  of  labial;  antennae 
filiform.  Three  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     CICINDELA,  Lat. 

Head  strong ;  eyes  large  and  projecting  ;  corselet  very  nar- 
row and  round ;  mouth  bristled  with  hairs ;  body  generally  of 
a  deeper  or  lighter  green,  mingled  with  metallic  and  brilliant 
colours,  and  having  white  spots  upon  the  cases.  Habitation 
in  sandy  places,  where  they  actively  pursue  Flies  and  other 
Insects.  Their  larvae  are  found  in  the  sand,  where  they  ex- 
cavate perpendicular  holes,  and  place  their  large  head  at  the 
opening,  in  order  to  lower  it  rapidly,  like  a  trap,  whenever  an 
Insect  happens  to  pass  over  the  treacherous  bridge. 

GENUS  II.     CARABUS. 

This  genus  is  characterized  by  setaceous  antennae,  and  by 
the  shape  of  the  thorax,  which  resembles  a  heart ;  the  point 
cut  off  and  margined.  The  elytra  are  likewise  surrounded 
with  a  margin. 

In  their  winged  state,  the  heads  of  these  animals  are  pro- 
minent; their  mouths  are  armed  with  jaws,  and  four  palpi. 
Their  eggs  are  deposited  under  ground,  or  in  decayed  trees, 
where  the  larvae  reside  till  they  are  metamorphosed,  It  is 
not  vegetable  production  alone  that  they  devour  :  they  are  the 
greatest  tyrants  to  other  Insects,  and  destroy,  indiscriminately, 
as  many  as  their  strength  enables  them  to  overcome.  They 
frequently  emit  a  fetid  odour,  and  discharge  an  acrid,  caustic 
liquor,  when  touched. 


INSECTA.  127 

>.1     -*•  'r    •'.  -'        >    •.">  .',    V/^  '       '  ~.'.T    "'   '•"  '         .        • 

GENUS  III.     GYRINUS. 

These  animals  have  four  eyes,  two  on  the  upper,  and  two 
on  the  under  side  of  the  head ;  the  antennae  are  clavated,  stiff, 
and  shorter  than  the  head.  The  hinder  legs  are  also  short, 
flat,  and  very  broad. 

The  colour  of  this  insect  is  a  resplendent  black,  with  a 
shade  of  brown.  The  elytra  are  adorned  with  beautiful  striae, 
consisting  of  a  number  of  points,  so  minute  as  hardly  to  be 
observed  without  the  assistance  of  a  microscope.  On  the 
hinder  part  of  the  margins  of  the  elytra  are  seen,  by  the  same 
means,  small  protuberances,  borne  upon  pedicles,  and  so  de- 
ciduous, that  the  smallest  friction  sweeps  them  away.  The 
feet  of  this  Insect  are  of  a  yellowish  brown,  and  the  hinder 
pair  so  short,  that  in  certain  positions  the  animal  seems  to 
have  but  two.  These  are  the  insects  seen  wheeling  around 
with  inconceivable  rapidity  on  the  surface  of  stagnant  waters. 

FAMILY  II.     SERRICORNES. 
Antennae  filiform,  or  like  a  saw.     Three  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     ELATER. 

The  insects  of  this  genus  are  distinguished  by  setaceous 
antennae,  but  more  particularly  by  an  elastic  spine,  which 
springs  from  the  under  side  of  the  thorax,  near  the  extremity. 
By  the  means  of  this  spring,  these  animals,  when  turned  upon 
the  back,  are  capable  of  jumping  into  the  air,  and  recovering 
their  position. 

In  the  state  of  larvae,  the  insects  of  this  genus  inhabit  the 
trunks  of  decayed  trees,  and  are  there  metamorphosed  into 
the  winged  form.  Their  residence  is  then  changed,  and  they 
are  seen  in  various  haunts,  flowers,  thickets  or  open  fields. 

The  chestnut-coloured  E later.  This  Insect  is  found  both 
in  corn  and  pasture  fields. 

The  antennae  are  branchy,  and  the  tips  of  the  elytra  black; 
the  rest  of  a  pale  flesh  colour ;  the  thorax  is  covered  with  a 
fine  ash-coloured  down.  A  South  American  species  gives 
out  a  vivid  light  during  the  night. 

GENUS  II.     LAMPYRIS. 

Elytra  soft;  corselet  semicircular,  and  covering  the  head; 


128  INSECTA. 

female  generally  without  wings.  They  are  nocturnal  Insects, 
lying  concealed  among  the  grass  in  the  daytime,  and  only 
issuing  at  night;  the  female  then  emits  a  bluish  phosphorescent 
glow. 

GENUS  III.     ANOBIUM,  Fab. 

Body  round;  head  covered  by  the  corselet;  these  Insects 
gnaw  the  wood  of  old  furniture,  and  in  the  nuptial  season 
call  each  other  by  striking  the  head  upon  the  surface  of  solid 
bodies,  after  fixing  themselves  there  firmly  with  their  claws ; 
the  noise  thus  produced  has  procured  them  the  vulgar  appel- 
lation of  Death-watch. 

FAMILY  III.     CLAVICORNES. 

Antennae  in  form  of  a  club.     One  remarkable  genus. 

GENUS  DERMESTES. 

Body  somewhat  depressed;  antennae  longer  than  the  head; 
the  larvae  attach  themselves  particularly  to  the  skin  of  dead 
animals  ;  the  perfect  Insect  lives  upon  flowers. 

FAMILY  IV.     LAMELLICORNES. 

Antennae  terminated  by  a  collection  of  lamellae  arranged 
like  a  fan,  or  the  leaves  of  a  book;  the  anterior  part  of  the 
body  generally  projects  in  the  form  of  a  hood.  Three  re- 
markable genera. 

GENUS  I.     SCARAB^BUS. 

Body  thick  and  convex ;  hood  exceedingly  short ;  flight 
heavy,  and  in  a  right  line.  They  inhabit  the  hot  regions  of 
both  continents. 

GENUS  II.     MELOLONTHA,  Fab. 

Hood  wide  and  square ;  elytra  hard  and  long ;  antennae 
with  ten  articulations,  of  which  five  or  seven  in  the  males, 
six  or  four  in  the  females,  compose  the  club ;  larvae  soft,  elon- 
gated, and  known  by  the  name  of  White  Worms. 

GENUS  III.     LUCANUS. 

Body  flattened ;  head  at  least  as  large  as  the  corselet  in  the 
males,  who  often  exhibit  well  developed  mandibles. 


INSECTA.  129 

Section  II.     Heteromera. 

Five  joints  to  the  four  first  tarsi;  one  less  in  the  two  last. 
One  remarkable  genus. 

GENUS  CANTHARIS. 

Elytra  soft  and  flexible  ;  head  a  little  wider  than  the  cor- 
selet, which  is  nearly  ovoid,  and  reflexed  anteriorly ;  antennae 
filiform ;  tarsi  with  entire  joints  and  cleft  hooks ;  diverse 
species  are  employed  externally  as  epispastics.  They  are 
seen  in  May  and  June,  principally  upon  the  ash  and  lilac. 

Section  III.     Tetramera. 

Four  joints  to  each  tarsus ;  they  live  on  flowers  or  the 
leaves  of  plants.  Two  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     CALANDRA. 

Antennae  clubbed  and  inserted  upon  a  sort  of  trunk  pro- 
duced by  the  anterior  prolongation  of  the  head;  larvae  without 
feet,  and  formidable  for  their  devastations  among  grain,  of 
which  they  devour  the  interior  without  touching  the  bark ; 
a  pair  will  produce  from  six  to  fifteen  young  in  a  month. 
The  most  common  species  are  known  in  the  larva  state  by 
the  name  of  Weevil. 

GENUS  IT.     PRIONUS. 

Body  depressed ;  corselet  spiny ;  antennae  very  long,  like 
bristles  and  placed  between  the  eyes;  all  the  species  are 
generally  remarkable  for  the  elegance  of  their  forms  and  the 
brilliancy  of  their  colours  ;  they  live  in  woods  upon  the  trunks 
of  trees,  in  the  interior  of  which  they  exist  as  larvae,  nymphs 
and  perfect  insects. 

Section  IV.     Trimera. 
GENUS  COCCINELLA. 

Little  Insects  with  hemispherical  bodies,  adorned  with 
beautiful  colours ;  their  larvae  live  principally  upon  grubs ; 
and  on  this  account  are  useful  in  gardens. 


130  INSECTA. 


ORDER  III.  ORTHOPTERA. 

Body  generally  softer  than  in  the  Coleoptera ;  elytra  soft, 
semi-membranous  and  furnished  with  nervures;  wings  folded 
longitudinally,  and  generally  like  a  fan,  and  divided  by  mem- 
branous nervures  running  in  the  same  direction ;  antennae 
less  variable  in  shape  than  among  the  Coleoptera,  and  usually 
composed  of  a  greater  number  of  joints;  eyes  composite, 
sometimes  accompanied  with  two  or  three  small  smooth  eyes ; 
jaws  covered  with  a  kind  of  casque  called  galea ;  mandibles 
very  strong  and  horny;  four  palpi ;  the  maxillaries  composed 
of  five  articulations,  the  labials  of  three  ;  metamorphosis  par- 
tial, being  confined  ta  the  growth  and  development  of  the 
elytra  and  wings,  which  begin  to  show  themselves  in  the 
nymph  in  a  rudimental  state,  or  like  stumps;  habitation 
always  terrestrial  even  in  their  two  first  states ;  regimen  her- 
bivorous or  carnivorous,  but  most  frequently  herbivorous. 
Two  families. 

FAMILY  I.     CURSORIA. 

Posterior  as  well  as  anterior  legs  only  adapted  for  run- 
ning ;  females  without  horny  ovipositor ;  no  singing  organ. 
Two  genera. 

GENUS  I.     FORFICULA,  Lin. 

Three  joints  to  the  tarsi ;  wings  fan-like,  and  folded  trans- 
versely beneath  very  short  crustaceous  elytra ;  body  linear, 
and  terminated  by  two  large,  movable  and  shelly  pieces, 
forming  a  forceps. 

GENUS  II.     MANTIS,  Lin. 

Corselet  exceedingly  elongated  and  narrow ;  five  joints  to 
each  tarsus ;  anterior  legs  larger  than  the  others ;  they  use 
them  for  conveying  their  prey  to  the  mouth,  by  quickly 
flexing  the  tibia  against  the  thigh.  The  name  of  Mantis, 
which  in  Greek  signifies  prophet,  is  derived  from  the  suppo- 
sition that  they  indicate  or  point  out  objects  when  extending 
the  feet.  The  Turks  pay  them  a  certain  reverence. 


INSECTA.  131 

FAMILY  II.     SALTATORIA. 

The  pair  of  posterior  legs  remarkable  for  the  size  of  the 
thighs ;  legs  spiny  and  adapted  to  leaping ;  males  are  en- 
dowed with  the  faculty  of  making  a  stridulous  noise,  vul- 
garly called  their  song ;  sometimes  they  produce  it  by  rub- 
bing rapidly,  one  against  the  other,  the  interior  surfaces  of 
their  elytra ;  sometimes  they  excite  it  by  a  similar  alternate 
action  of  the  posterior  thighs  upon  the  elytra  and  wings,  the 
thighs  acting  like  the  bow  of  a  violin.  Three  genera. 

GENUS  I.     GRYLLUS,  Geoff. 

In  the  males  a  portion  of  the  elytron,  in  the  form  of  a  mir- 
ror or  drum-head,  forms  the  musical  instrument ;  elytra  and 
wings  horizontal ;  three  joints  to  the  tarsi.  Two  subgenera. 

SUBGENUS  GRYLLO-TALPA,  Lat. 

Tibia  and  tarsi  of  the  two  anterior  legs  wide,  flat,  indented 
in  the  form  of  a  hand  and  fit  for  digging.  The  female  digs 
for  herself,  in  June  or  July,  to  the  depth  of  six  inches,  a  sub- 
terranean cavity,  round  and  smooth  in  the  interior,  where 
she  deposits  from  two  to  four  hundred  eggs.  This  nest, 
with  the  passage  to  it,  resembles  a  bottle  with  the  neck  bent. 

SUBGENUS  GRYLLUS  PROPER. 

No  broad  anterior  feet.  The  Field-Gryllus  digs  for  him- 
self a  very  deep  hole  in  a  dry  soil,  exposed  to  the  sun,  and 
here  lies  in  wait  for  Insects. 

GENUS  II.     LOCUSTA,  Geoff. 

Same  musical  instruments  as  the  Gryllus ;  mandibles  less 
indented,  and  galea  broader ;  elytra  and  wings  tectiform ; 
tarsus  composed  of  four  joints ;  always  a  projecting  ovipositor 
in  the  form  of  a  sabre,  in  the  females. 

GENUS  III.     ACRYDIUM.     Cricket. 

Stridulation  of  the  males  produced  by  rubbing  the  thighs 
against  the  elytra  or  wings ;  no  projecting  ovipositor  in  the 
females ;  elytra  and  wings  tectiform  or  inclined ;  tarsus  com- 
posed of  three  joints ;  antennae  sometimes  filiform  and  cylin- 
drical, sometimes  in  the  form  of  a  sword,  or  terminating  in  a 
club,  and  always  as  long  as  the  head  and  corselet.  Certain 


132  INSECTA. 

species,  called  Travellers,  unite  in  troops  so  considerable  that, 
upon  rising,  they  resemble  a  dark  cloud,  and  convert  all 
places  where  they  sojourn  into  deserts.  Their  death  is  a  new 
scourge ;  for,  in  putrefying,  their  bodies  often  emit  exhala- 
tions which  produce  epidemic  diseases.  In  certain  parts  of 
Africa  the  Insects  are  collected  for  eating,  and  also  preserved 
in  brine  for  commerce. 


ORDER  IV.     HEMIPTERA. 

Two  wings  covered  by  two  elytra,  generally  membranous 
at  their  free  extremity ;  mouth  formed  by  a  kind  of  articu- 
lated tube,  curved  inferiorly,  resembling  a  beak,  and  exhibi- 
ting a  groove  including  four  stiff,  pointed  hairs,  which  have 
been  considered  as  the  rudiments  of  mandibles  and  jaws, 
organs  which  have  disappeared  in  these  Insects ;  metamor- 
phosis generally  incomplete ;  many  have  smooth  eyes,  but 
never  more  than  two.  Two  sections. 

Section  I.     Heteroptera. 

Beak  springing  from  the  front ;  elytron  membranous  at  the 
extremity;  elytra  and  wings  always  horizontal,  or  slightly 
inclined. 

GENUS  I.     CIMEX,  Lin. 

Three  joints  to  the  tarsi ;  antennae  longer  than  the  head, 
and  inserted  between  the  eyes. 

SDBGENUS  PENTATOMA. 

Elytra  crossed,  and  partially  coriaceous ;  antenna?  with  five 
joints. 

SUBGENUS  CIMEX  PROPER,  Lat.     Bed-Bug. 

Body  wide,  entirely  without  wings,  and  exceedingly  de- 
pressed ;  antennae  with  four  joints,  terminating  abruptly  in 
the  form  of  setae. 

GENUS  II.     NEPA,  Lin.     Water- Scorpions. 

Antennae  inserted  and  concealed  under  the  eyes  ;  they  are 
shorter  than  the  head,  or,  at  least,  of  the  same  length ;  ante- 


INSECTA.  133 

rior  legs  susceptible  of  folding  up  so  as  to  form  a  forceps ; 
tarsi  with  one  or  two  articulations  ;  they  are  all  aquatic  and 
carnivorous,  and  sting  severely. 

Section  II.     Homoptera. 

Beak  springing  from  the  lowest  part  of  the  head ;  females 
provided  with  an  ovipositor,  composed  of  three  dentelated 
laminae,  which  they  employ  in  notching  vegetables  to  deposit 
their  eggs ;  elytra  throughout  of  the  same  consistence,  and 
always  tectiform  and  semi-membranous.  Three  remarkable 
genera. 

GENUS  I.     CICADA. 

Tarsi  with  three  articulations ;  antennae  of  six  joints ;  head 
wider  than  the  corselet;  three  simple  eyes;  elytra  not  crossed, 
tectiform,  transparent  and  veined ;  a  musical  instrument  in 
the  males,  composed  of  two  kinds  of  drums  or  scales,  which, 
through  the  influence  of  little  muscles,  become  alternately 
convex  and  concave. 

GENUS  II.     APHIS. 

Tarsi  with  two  articulations  terminated  by  two  hooks; 
antennae  with  six  or  seven  joints;  elytra  and  wings  oval  or 
triangular  and  tectiform ;  beak  very  distinct.  Nearly  all 
these  animals  live  in  societies  upon  trees  and  plants,  whose 
juice  they  suck  with  their  proboscis.  Their  punctures  cause 
the  leaves  or  young  vegetable  shoots  to  assume  different 
forms,  as  may  be  seen  upon  the  young  shoots  of  the  linden, 
the  leaves  of  the  gooseberry,  the  apple,  and  more  especially 
the  elm,  the  poplar  and  the  pistachio,  where  they  produce 
warts  or  excrescences,  enclosing  families  of  Aphides,  and 
often  an  abundant  saccharine  liquid. 

GENUS  III.     Coccus,  Lin. 

One  joint  only  to  the  tarsus,  with  a  single  hook  at  the  end ; 
females  without  wings,  and  provided  with  a  beak;  the  males 
have  two  wings,  which  lie  one  over  the  other  horizontally ; 
antennae  filiform  or  setaceous,  and  most  commonly  with 
eleven  joints.  The  Cochineal  (C.  Cacti)  belongs  to  this 
genus. 


134  INSECTA. 


ORDER  V.     NEUROPTERA. 

Four  similar,  naked,  membranous  and  reticulated  wings ; 
mouth  exhibiting  mandibles,  jaws  and  two  lips,  suitable  for 
mastication ;  abdomen  without  sting,  and  seldom  provided  with 
an  ovipositor ;  antennae  generally  setaceous,  and  composed  of 
a  great  number  of  articulations ;  small  eyes,  two  or  three ; 
metamorphosis  complete  or  incomplete;  larvae  always  fur- 
nished with  six  hooked  feet,  which  they  use  in  their  search 
for  food ;  form  generally  elegant;  colour  sometimes  very 
brilliant ;  regimen  carnivorous  in  the  larvae  and  perfect  in- 
sects. Two  remarkable  families. 

FAMILY  OF  THE  SUBULICORNES. 

Antennae  of  not  more  than  seven  joints,  and  but  little 
longer  than  the  head  ;  mandibles  and  jaws  entirely  covered 
by  the  labrum  and  labium  ;  habitation,  during  the  two  states 
of  larva  and  nymph,  in  the  wrater,  where  they  feed  upon 
living  prey.  Two  genera. 

GENUS  I.     LIBELLULA,  Lin.     Dragon-Flies. 

Head  thick  and  round,  or  triangular ;  two  large  lateral 
eyes ;  three  simple  eyes  placed  upon  the  vertex ;  two  anten- 
nae inserted  in  the  forehead ;  corselet  thick  and  round ;  ab- 
domen much  elongated,  and  terminated,  in  the  males,  by  two 
lamellar  appendages;  form  slender;  colours  agreeable  and 
various ;  wings  large  arid  like  lustrous  gauze ;  wonderful 
agility  in  pursuing  Flies  or  other  Insects  upon  which  they 
prey  ;  the  larvae  and  nymphs  (which  differ  only  in  the  rudi- 
mental  wings  possessed  by  the  latter)  live  in  marshes,  where 
they  swim  by  means  of  a  kind  of  oars,  or  by  a  particular 
mechanism,  which  consists  in  expelling  from  the  abdomen  a 
certain  quantity  of  water  previously  introduced  into  the 
intestines,  where  there  are  organs  resembling  branchiae. 

GENUS  11.     EPHEMERA,  Lin. 

Body  soft,  long,  tapering,  and  terminated  posteriorly  by 
two  or  three  long  and  articulated  setae ;  wings  inclined  to  the 
rear ;  legs  very  slender ;  tibiae  short  and  confounded  with 


INSECTA.  135 

the  tarsi ;  anterior  legs  much  longer  than  the  others ;  mouth 
very  small ;  mandibles  hardly  distinguishable.  They  derive 
their  name  from  the  brevity  of  their  existence  in  the  perfect 
state,  never  surviving  the  day  of  their  birth.  There  are  some 
of  them,  even,  who  are  metamorphosed,  lay  eggs,  and  expire 
the  same  evening.  The  larvae  are  elongated  and  soft ;  they 
live  many  years,  previous  to  the  metamorphosis,  in  holes 
with  two  issues,  which  they  excavate  in  the  banks  of  running 
waters. 

FAMILY  OF  THE  PLANIPENNES. 

Antennae  with  many  joints,  considerably  longer  than  the 
head;  mandibles  very  distinct;  wings  four,  and  alike.  Two 
remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     MYRMELEON,  Lin.     Lion-Ant. 

Wings  equal  and  tectiform;  abdomen  long  and  cylindrical, 
with  two  projecting  appendages  in  the  males ;  antennas  short, 
with  hooks,  and  enlarged  towards  the  extremity ;  the  larva 
generally  moves  backwards ;  it  digs  in  the  sand  a  cavity  in 
the  form  of  a  funnel,  at  the  bottom  of  which  it  places  itself 
with  its  two  horns  wide  apart,  and  wo  to  the  Ant  or  other 
small  Insect  that  passes  by  the  edge  of  this  hole  !  the  sand 
caves  in,  and  it  falls  into  the  ambuscade  ;  the  Lion-Ant  sucks 
its  blood  by  the  aid  of  its  horns,  which  are  also  suckers,  and 
then  throws  its  body  to  a  great  distance,  so  that  it  may  not 
serve  as  a  warning  to  other  Insects  for  whom  it  is  lying  in 
wait.  If  the  prey  is  vigorous  and  resists,  at  the  moment  when 
the  walls  of  the  funnel  are  caving,  the  Lion- Ant,  with  its 
head,  throws  down  upon  it  a  shower  of  sand.  The  larva  is 
not  transformed  for  two  years. 

GENUS  II.     TERMES,  Lin. 

Tarsi  with  four  articulations ;  wings  folding  horizontally 
upon  the  body,  very  long,  slightly  transparent,  coloured,  and 
with  very  fine  nervures ;  abdomen  terminated  by  two  little 
points;  antennae  setaceous;  the  larvae  live  in  society,  and 
construct  enormous  nests  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  high,  and 
sometimes  capable  of  holding  a  dozen  men ;  individuals  called 
neuters,  distinguished  by  their  enormous  head  and  strong 


136  INSECTA. 

jaws,  are  charged  with  the  defence  of  the  habitation.  The 
females  arrived  at  the  perfect  state  are  taken  care  of  and  sup- 
plied with  food  before  and  during  the  period  of  laying  eggs, 
by  the  larvae  or  labourers,  who  place  them  in  a  particular 
lodging,  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  dwelling.  Some  females 
lay,  it  is  said,  60  eggs  per  minute,  which  is  3600  an  hour,  or 
86,400  a  day. 


ORDER  VI.     HYMENOPTERA. 

Four  naked  membranous  wings  veined  longitudinally,  the 
superior  of  which  are  always  longer  than  the  inferior;  mouth 
composed  of  jaws  and  a  labium  very  narrow,  (besides  the 
labrum  and  mandibles)  forming  a  demi-tube  more  suitable 
for  suction  than  mastication ;  envelope  of  the  body  not  crus- 
taceous  ;  tarsi  with  five  joints ;  abdomen  generally  attached 
to  the  thorax  by  a  very  slender  pedicle,  terminated,  in  the 
females,  either  by  an  ovipositor  in  the  form  of  a  saw,  or  by  a 
simple  retractile  sting  which  introduces  an  irritating  fluid 
into  the  wounds  it  creates ;  always  three  smooth  eyes  beside 
the  two  composite.  Metamorphosis  complete.  Most  of  the 
larvae  are  without  feet,  remaining  motionless  in  the  spot 
where  born,  and  where  they  find  food,  brought,  under  cer- 
tain circumstances,  by  the  adult  individuals.  Those  pro- 
vided with  feet  attend  to  their  nutrition.  These  insects 
present  three  kinds  of  individuals,  whose  colour  and  form 
vary  greatly-— the  males,  the  females  and  the  neuters.  Two 
sections. 

Section  I.     Terebrantia. 
An  ovipositor  in  the  females.     Two  remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     ICHNEUMON,  Lin. 

Maxillary  palpi  projecting ;  antennae  setaceous ;  abdomen 
cylindrical;  in  the  females  a  long  ovipositor  with  three 
threads.  These  insects  are  the  most  deadly  enemies  of  the 
larvae  of  others.  Their  females,  with  their  long  ovipositor, 
pierce  a  hole  in  the  body  of  the  Caterpillar,  and  there  place 


INSECTA.  137 

the  egg ;  the  worm  which  issues  devours  the  entrails  of  the 
victim. 

GENUS  II.     CYNIPS,  Lin. 

Head  small;  corselet  thick  and  high,  which  causes  them  to 
appear  as  if  hunch-backed;  inferior  wings  with  a  single  vein. 
The  punctures  which  the  female  makes  in  plants  for  the  pur- 
pose of  introducing  her  eggs,  cause  excrescences  denominated 
gall-nuts.  The  Fig-Oynips  is  famous  for  the  services  it  ren- 
ders in  the  East  by  bringing  about  the  fecundation  of  the 
tree  whose  name  it  bears.  In  fact,  these  are  the  Insects 
which  transport  the  pollen  of  the  male  flowers  into  the  inte- 
rior of  the  females,  which  are  surrounded  with  a  kind  of  skin 
having  only  a  very  narrow  aperture  at  top. 

Section  II.     Jlculeata. 

No  ovipositor;  a  concealed  retractile  sting  composed  of 
three  pieces;  larvae  always  without  feet  and  living  upon  food 
brought  them  by  the  females  and  neuters.  Three  remark- 
able genera. 

GENUS  I.     FORMICA,  Lin.     Ant. 

Lips  and  jaws  not  projecting ;  antennae  filiform  and  geni- 
culate ;  abdomen  united  to  the  thorax  by  a  pedicle  in  the 
form  of  a  scale  or  knot,  single  or  double ;  each  species  is  of 
three  sorts — the  males,  the  females  whose  wings  are  long, 
and  the  neuters  which  are  apterous.  They  feed  upon  a 
great  number  of  substances,  but  are  particularly  fond  of  sac- 
charine matter;  their  habits  are  very  curious. 

GENUS  II.     VESPA,  Lin.     Wasp. 

Superior  wings  folding  longitudinally.  Jaws  not  extending 
beyond  the  mandibles ;  antennas  with  thirteen  articulations 
in  the  males,  and  twelve  in  the  females.  The  females  and 
neuters  build  nests  composed  of  a  kind  of  paper  or  card 
which  they  make  by  bruising  with  their  mandibles  particles 
of  decayed  wood  or  bark,  and  reducing  it  to  a  paste  by  the 
aid  of  a  fluid,  which  is  supplied  abundantly  by  their  mouths. 
They  feed  upon  insects,  meat  or  fruit. 

GENUS  III.     APIS,  Lin.     Bee. 

Jaws  probosci-form,  and  extending  beyond  the  mandibles; 


138  INSECTA. 

the  first  joint  of  the  posterior  tarsus  very  large  and  compressed 
in  the  form  of  a  square  or  triangular  face. 

SUBGENUS  BOMBUS,  Lat. 

Corselet  much  larger  than  the  head ;  posterior  legs  spiny. 

SUBGENUS  APIS  PROPER. 

Head  and  corselet  equal  in  width ;  posterior  legs  without 
spines ;  first  articulation  of  the  tarsus  squared. 


ORDER  VII.     LEPIDOPTERA. 

Four  membranous  wings  covered  with  little  coloured  scales ; 
mouth  forming  a  rolled  proboscis,  produced  by  an  elongation 
of  the  jaws,  upon  the  sides  of  which  are  found  the  rudiments 
of  mandibles  and  downy  palpi.  Metamorphosis  complete ; 
larvae  called  caterpillars- — of  which  some  feed  upon  leaves, 
others,  less  common,  gnaw  the  ligneous  part  of  trees,  soften- 
ing it  with  a  saliva  which  they  disgorge ;  some  live  at  the 
expense  of  woollen  stuffs  and  furs.  The  nymphs  are  almost 
always  motionless,  and  generally  spin  a  cocoon  to  effect  the 
metamorphosis. 

FAMILY  I.     DIURNA. 

Wings  vertical  during  repose ;  antennae  terminated,  in  ge- 
neral, by  a  small  round  club,  at  other  times  tapering  at  the 
end  and  reflexed  into  a  hook;  caterpillars  almost  always 
provided  with  sixteen  feet;  chrysalis  hardly  ever  enclosed 
in  a  cocoon,  but  suspended  in  the  air  by  the  posterior  extre- 
mity of  the  body. 

GENUS  PAPILIO.     Butterfly. 
SUBGENUS  PAPILIO  PROPER. 

The  six  feet  adapted  to  walking ;  inferior  palpi  very  short, 
hardly  reaching  the  hood. 

SUBGENUS  PARNASSIUS. 

Six  feet  adapted  to  walking;  inferior  palpi  elevated  beyond 
the  hood  and  with  three  joints. 


1NSECTA.  139 

SUBGENUS  VANESSA. 

The  two  anterior  feet  considerably  shorter ;  no  ambulatory 
ones.  Antennae  terminated  abruptly  by  a  short  button ;  ca- 
terpillars covered  with  spines/ 

SUBGENUS  POLYOMMATUS. 

Two  anterior  feet  as  in  the  preceding,  no  ambulatory  ones. 
Small  eye-like  spots  upon  the  wings. 

FAMILY  II.     CREPUSCULARIA. 

Wings,  during  repose,  horizontal  or  inclined ;  the  inferior 
one  retained  to  the  superior  by  a  stiff  hair ;  antennae  in  the 
form  of  an  elongated  club,  prismatic  or  fusiform ;  sometimes 
they  are  pectiniform ;  caterpillars  always  provided  with  six- 
teen feet 

GENUS  SPHINX. 

Antennae  prismatic  and  terminating  in  hairs ;  wings  long 
and  horizontal;  abdomen  pointed.  The  Death's-headed 
Sphinx  has  occasioned  much  terror  in  certain  countries  by 
the  kind  of  cry  which  it  utters,  and  the  insignia  of  death 

upon  its  corselet. 

'  .  •  -    -  .'./••"  •  ' 

FAMILY  III.     NOCTURNA. 

Wings,  during  repose,  hori  zontal  or  inclined ;  the  superior 
nearly  always  bridled  to  the  inferior ;  antennas  decreasing  in 
thickness  from  the  base  to  the  summit,  or  setaceous. 

TRIBE  OF  THE  BOMBYCES.     Silk- Worms. 

Proboscis  always  short  and  rudimental ;  wings  extended, 
horizontal,  or  inclined  so  as  to  form  a  triangle  with  the  body. 

TRIBE  OF  THE  TINE^E.     Moths. 

Wings  rolled  cylindrically ;  the  larvae  live  in  a  sheath  or 
case. 


140  INSECTA. 

ORDER  VIII.     DIPTERA. 

Body  with  teguments  of  the  consistence  of  tender  bark  ;  a 
trunk  forming  a  univalved  sheath,  open  beneath,  and  contain- 
ing a  sucker,  composed  of  two,  four,  or  six  stiff  bristles ;  six 
feet,  two  membranous  wings,  above  them  two  movable  bodies 
called  halter es.  Two  palpi;  antennae  formed  usually  of  three 
joints;  eyes  large,  commonly  three  simple  ones;  thorax  occu- 
pied in  a  great  measure  by  the  mesothorax;  abdomen  with 
from  four  to  seven  distinct  segments;  tarsi  with  five  joints. 
Two  divisions.  Metamorphosis  complete. 

DIVISION  I.     NEMOCERA. 

Body  usually  slender  and  elongated  ;  head  small ;  legs  long 
and  slender ;  wings  elongated,  and  often  narrow;  antennas  fili- 
form or  setaceous,  and  frequently  at  least  as  long  as  the  head 
and  thorax  together,  and  with  not  less  than  six  articulations. 
One  remarkable  genus. 

GENUS  CULEX,  Lin.     Musqueto. 

Proboscis  long,  slender,  projecting,  and  terminated  by  two 
small  lips ;  sucker  with  five  bristles ;  antennas  filiform,  hairy 
and  downy ;  no  simple  eyes ;  wings  laid  one  over  the  other ; 
palpi  shorter  than  the  proboscis. 

These  insects,  of  which  only  the  females  suck  blood,  show 
themselves  but  little  during  the  day,  except  in  the  woods. 
The  female  lays  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  eggs, 
one  by  one,  placing  one  upon  the  other,  and  forming  of  the 
whole  a  kind  of  raft,  which  floats  upon  the  water.  The  res- 
piration of  the  larvas  who  live  in  this  element,  is  effected  by 
means  of  a  spiraculum,  placed  at  the  end  of  a  long  tube;  this 
tube  serving  for  the  introduction  of  air  into  the  tracheas,  the 
larva  is  obliged  to  live  in  a  reverted  position,  keeping  the 
extremity  of  its  body  upon  the  surface  of  the  water. 

DIVISION  II.     BRACHOCERA. 

Body  generally  wide,  and  not  long;  head  hemispherical, 
and  of  the  breadth  of  the  thorax;  proboscis  sometimes  long, 
slender  and  coriaceous,  sometimes  short,  thick  and  fleshy;  a 


INSECTA.  141 

sucker  with  two,  four,  or  six  bristles;  feet  moderately  long; 
wings  usually  wide ;  antennae  with  three  articulations.  Three 
remarkable  genera. 

GENUS  I.     TABANUS,  Lin.     Gad-Fly. 

Head  wide;  sucker  composed  of  six  pieces,  in  the  form  of 
lancets;  proboscis  projecting,  with  two  lips.  They  resemble 
large  Flies,  and  are  well  known  by  the  torments  which  they 
inflict  upon  Horses  and  Oxen,  whose  skin  they  pierce  for  the 
purpose  of  sucking  their  blood. 

GENUS  II.     OESTRUS.     Bott. 

Hardly  any  vestige  of  mouth ;  sucker  composed  of  two  setae, 
appearance  like  that  of  a  large  hairy  fly;  antennas  very  short; 
tarsi  terminated  by  two  hooks  and  two  pellets. 

These  Insects  are  rarely  found  in  their  perfect  state.  Each 
species  is  generally  a  parasite  of  some  species  of  mammife- 
rous  animal,  and  places  its  eggs  upon  whatever  part  of  the 
body  is  most  suitable  for  its  larvae. 

GENUS  III.    MUSCA.     Fly. 

Proboscis  apparent,  membranous,  bi-labiate,  and  suscepti- 
ble of  being  entirely  drawn  within  the  buccal  cavity;  sucker 
of  two  pieces. 


142 


Fourth  Great  Division  of  the  Animal  Kingdom. 


ANIMALIA  RADIATA. 


ORGANIZATION  more  simple  than  in  the  three  preceding 
branches ;  the  parts  arranged  around  an  axis,  and  upon  two 
or  more  rays,  or  upon  two  or  more  lines  extending  from 
pole  to  pole ;  nervous  system  indistinct,  generally  not  appa- 
rent ;  circulatory  organs  very  incomplete,  and,  in  the  greater 
part,  not  existing  at  all ;  seldom  a  mouth ;  sometimes  an  in- 
testinal cul-de-sac ;  in  the  greater  number  a  simple  cavity, 
even  in  the  thickness  of  the  body,  opening,  sometimes  by 
several  suckers ;  often  no  distinguishable  mouth.  Five 
classes. 


ECHINODERMATA. 


Skin  well  organized,  sustained  frequently  by  a  sort  of 
skeleton  armed  with  articulated  and  movable  points  or  spines, 
with  an  internal  cavity  in  which  viscera  are  floating ;  vas- 
cular system  confined  to  different  portions  of  the  intestines, 
and  to  the  organs  of  respiration,  which  are,  in  general,  very 
distinct,  as  well  as  the  viscera ;  nervous  system  very  incom- 
plete, filiform,  and,  in  many  species,  even  altogether  imper- 
ceptible. Two  orders. 


ANIMALIA  RADIATA.  143 

ORDER  I.  ECHINODERMATA  PEDICELLATA. 

.)  • 

Envelope  pierced  with  a  great  number  of  little  holes,  across 
which  pass  membranous  tentacula,  terminated  by  a  small 
disk,  fulfilling  the  office  of  vent-hole ;  such  are  the  Echini 
or  Sea-urchins  and  Sea-stars. 


ORDER  II.    ECHINODERMATA  APODA. 

Body  clothed  in  a  coriaceous  skin,  without  armour  or  vesi- 
culous  feet. 


ENTOZOA.* 


Body,  in  general,  elongated  or  depressed,  articulated  or  not 
articulated,  and  without  limbs ;  no  branchiae  nor  tracheae,  nor 
any  other  organ  of  respiration;  no  traces  of  a  true  circulation; 
some  vestiges  of  nerves,  but  sufficiently  obscure,  as  many 
naturalists  have  even  doubted  their  existence;  almost  all  live 
within  other  animals ;  there  are  hardly  any  tissues  or  cavi- 
ties in  which  some  have  not  been  discovered;  they  have 
even  been  observed  in  muscles  and  the  cerebral  substance. 
The  manner  of  their  introduction  into  the  animal  economy 
has  never  been  satisfactorily  ascertained.  Two  orders. 

*  Intestinal  Worms. 


4.44  ANIMALIA  RADIATA. 


ORDER  I.     NEMATOIDEA. 

An  intestinal  canal  floating  in  a  distinct  abdominal  cavity; 
a  mouth;  external  skin  furnished  with  muscular  fibres.  The 
Ascaris  belongs  to  this  order. 


ORDER  II.     PARENCHYMATA. 

Body  inclosing  in  its  parenchyma  viscera  indefinitely  ter- 
minated, and  resembling  most  frequently  vascular  ramifica- 
tions, sometimes  none  apparent.  Example,  the  Taenia. 


-  -c 


ACALEPHA. 


Marine  animals,  in  whose  organization  we  still  perceive 
vessels,  although  Cuvier  regards  them  as  productions  of  the 
intestines  excavated  in  the  parenchyma  of  the  body ;  form 
circular  and  radiated;  a  single  orifice;  no  distinct  organs  of 
respiration.  Their  name,  derived  from  the  Greek,  signifies 
nettle,  and  has  been  given  to  them  on  account  of  the  faculty 
possessed  by  certain  species  of  imparting  to  the  hand  which 
touches  it  a  sensation  of  pricking  and  burning.  Two  orders. 

ORDER  I.     SIMPLICIA. 

Natation  effected  by  means  of  the  contractions  of  the  body ; 
some  emit  a  phosphorent  light,  making  the  sea,  at  night,  re- 
semble a  starry  sky ;  substance  gelatinous ;  no  fibres  apparent. 
Example,  the  Medusa. 


ANIMALIA  RADIATA.  145 

ORDER  II.     HYDROSTATICA. 

One  or  more  bladders  filled  with  air,  and  destined  to  sup- 
port the  animal  in  the  midst  of  the  fluid ;  very  numerous  ap- 
pendages, some  of  which  act  as  suckers,  others  as  tentacula; 
no  apparent  mouth. 


POLYPI. 


Body  cylindrical  or  conical,  often  without  other  viscera 
than  its  cavity;  often,  likewise,  with  a  visible  stomach,  to 
which  intestines  adhere,  or  rather  vessels  excavated  in  the 
substance  of  the  body  ;  a  single  orifice  surrounded  by  tenta- 
cula, and  making  these  animals  resemble  the  Octopus ;  pro- 
duction of  new  individuals  by  buds  and  by  eggs.  Two  re- 
markable orders. 

ORDER  I.     CARNOSI. 

Body  fleshy,  contractile  and  without  any  solid  matter  ex- 
ternal or  internal;  inferior  extremity  in  form  of  a  disk,  serving 
to  keep  them  stationary,  sometimes  aiding  them  to  creep,  and 
even  susceptible  of  being  detached,  so  as  to  permit  them  to 
swim ;  mouth  surrounded  by  tentacula,  resembling,  in  their 
expansion,  the  petals  of  a  flower.  Such  are  the  Actiniae  or 
Sea  Anemonies. 


146  ANIMALIA  RADIATA. 

**; 

ORDER  II.     CORALLIFERL 

Animals  united  in  great  numbers  to  form  composite  ani- 
mals, protected  and  sustained  by  solid  matters  called  polypiers, 
internal  or  external ;  nutrition,  sensibility  and  will  in  com- 
mon. Such  are  the  Sponges,  Madrepores,  Tubipores  and 
Coral. 


INFUSORIA. 


Little  microscopic  beings  swarming  in  still  waters ;  the 
greater  number  gelatinous  and  without  viscera :  at  their  head 
we  place  the  species  with  the  most  complex  organization. 
Two  orders. 

ORDER  I.    ROTIFERA. 

Body  oval;  a  mouth ;  a  stomach ;  an  intestine ;  and  a  tail ; 
anteriorly  a  singular  organ,  which,  by  its  vibrations,  gives 
the  appearance  of  revolving  wheels. 


ORDER  II.  HOMOGENEA. 

No  viscera ;  often  not  even  the  appearance  of  a  mouth. 


BOTANY 


BOTANY. 


ELEMENTARY  ORGANS. 

SIMPLE  ORGANS.     CELLS  AND  VESSELS. 

CELLS,  OR  CELLULAR  TISSUE. 

An  assemblage  of  cells  joined  together,  composed  each  of  a 
spherical  dodecaedric  fusiform  sac,  generally  from  one-three- 
hundredths  to  one-five-hundredths  of  an  inch  in  diameter; 
membrane  of  the  sac  fine,  delicate,  imperforate,  and  most  fre- 
quently marked  with  dots ;  colour  green,  owing  to  the  interior 
globules.  The  cellular  tissue,  which  is  the  general,  and 
sometimes  the  sole  element  of  plants,  increases  by  the  deve- 
lopment of  new  cells,  either  in  the  intervals,  or,  in  some  cases, 
in  the  interior  of  the  old  ones. 

VESSELS. 
TRACHEAE. 

Each  a  tube  formed  by  a  spiral  thread  which  may  be  un- 
rolled in  the  form  of  a  corkscrew,  and  included  in  a  membrane, 
as  if  it  had  been  born  in  a  cell;  form  cylindrical;  diameter 
from  one-three-hundredths  to  one-three-thousandths  of  an  inch ; 
extremities  conical.  They  are  found  in  all  the  organs  of  vas- 
cular plants,  the  leaves  of  flowers,  &c.,  principally  around  the 
pith  of  dicotyledonous  trees. 

ANNULAR,  OR  RADIATED  VESSELS. 

Cylindrical  tubes,  not  ramified,  marked  with  regular  trans- 
versal rays,  parallel  with  each  other,  not  susceptible  of  being 
unrolled,  sometimes  very  close  together,  and,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  veritable  solid  rings,  fixed  at  variable  distances 
from  one  vessel  to  another,  but  at  equal  distances  in  the  same 
vessel;  diameter  the  same  as  in  the  tracheae. 


150  BOTANY. 

PUNCTUATED  VESSELS. 

Cylindrical  vessels,  spotted  with  opaque  points  or  dots,  dis- 
posed in  series,  sometimes  parallel,  sometimes  slightly  oblique, 
and  marked  with  paler  rays,  like  rings,  or  in  spirals,  distant 
from  each  other  by  the  diameter  of  the  tube,  at  least.  Diameter 
generally  greater  than  the  tracheae. 

MONILIFORM  VESSELS. 

Tubes  punctuated,  ramified,  and  slightly  curved  at  irregu- 
lar intervals;  they  are  frequent  in  roots,  articulations,  or  at 
the  origin  of  branches  and  leaves. 

RETICULAR  VESSELS. 

Cylindrical  tubes,  whose  surface  is  covered  with  transversal, 
oblong  spots,  giving  it  the  appearance  of  a  net.  Kieser  has 
observed  them  in  the  Balsam  and  Nasturtium,  principally  in 
the  root;  he  regards  them  as  a  modification  of  tracheae,  in 
which  the  spires  are  unequally  combined.  Lindley  has  found 
them  in  the  Papyrus  and  Lily ;  Parkinge  in  the  tissue  which 
forms  the  internal  portion  of  the  cells  of  the  anthers. 

COMPOSITE  ORGANS.     INTERNAL  ARRANGEMENT. 

FIBRES. 

Collections  of  vessels,  composed  generally,  and  especially 
in  the  wood,  of  punctuated  vessels  and  tracheae,  surrounded 
by  elongated,  fusiform  cells;  the  most  solid  fibres  known  are 
those  of  the  Phormium  Tenax,  vulgarly  called  New  Zealand 
Flax,  which  will  support  a  weight  represented  by  sixteen  and 
one-third,  those  of  flax  supporting  a  weight  represented  by 
eleven  and  one-third. 

RESERVOIRS  OF  THE  PROPER  JUICES. 

Regular  cavities  produced  in  the  tissue  of  vegetables  by 
juices  of  diverse  natures,  generally  coloured  and  odorous, 
which  distend  the  cells  and  break  their  walls.  These  cavities 
are  also  improperly  called  vessels. 

AERIAL  CAVITIES. 

Empty  spaces  of  the  size  of  three  or  four  cells,  produced 
either  by  a  too  rapid  enlargement,  or  by  a  natural  disposition 


BOTANY.  151 

of  the  plant.  They  are  met  with  in  the  trunk  or  in  the 
leaves,  where  they  communicate  with  the  external  air  by  little 
openings  called  Stomata. 

EXTERNAL  ARRANGEMENT. 

EPIDERMIS. 

The  external,  general  envelope  of  plants,  composed,  first,  of 
a  simple  superficial  pellicle,  without  appreciable  texture, 
pierced  with  elongated  apertures,  corresponding  to  the  middle 
of  the  stomata ;  secondly,  of  one  of  several  beds  of  utricles, 
diversely  formed,  according  to  the  species,  intimately  united, 
and  filled  with  a  liquid  which  is  generally  colourless. 

STOMATA. 

Little  oval  apertures,  rarely  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  pre- 
senting themselves,  when  viewed  through  a  microscope,  with 
dark  lip-like  edges,  and  situated  between  the  ordinary  cells  of 
the  epidermis,  principally  upon  the  parenchyma  of  the  leaves, 
and  communicating,  internally,  with  air  cells.  They  have 
the  property  of  closing,  when  moistened. 

LENTICLES. 

Small  tubes  or  punctuations  found  upon  the  surface  of  the 
branches  of  monocotyledonous  vegetables,  and  which  they 
render  more  or  less  rough  to  the  touch;  their  colour  is  gene- 
rally paler  than  that  of  the  wood;  the  young  roots  issue 
through  them,  when  a  branch  is  put  into  the  moist  earth. 

HAIRS. 

Appendages  of  the  cellular  tissue,  formed  of  elongated  cells, 
and  designated  according  to  their  forms,  their  consistency,  or 
their  physiological  functions,  as  simple,  divided,  acukiform, 
glanduliferous,  excretory,  &c. 

THE  ROOT. 

The  inferior  part  of  vegetables,  by  which  they  are  fixed  to 
the  earth,  and  through  which  the  liquids  which  nourish  them 
penetrate.  It  is  characterized  by  growing  in  a  direction  op- 
posite to  that  of  the  trunk ;  by  being  elongated  only  through 
its  extremities ;  by  being  without  stomata ;  by  never  becoming 


152  BOTANY. 

green  in  the  air ;  and  by  being  irresistibly  attracted  towards 
the  centre  of  the  globe.  The  part  of  the  root  which  is  united 
with  the  trunk  is  called  the  neck;  the  undivided  portion  suc- 
ceeding the  neck  is  termed  the  body,  and,  finally,  the  rami- 
fications are  distinguished  as  radicles.  It  is  thought  that  the 
extremity  of  the  radicles  presents  certain  little  bladders  (spon- 
geoles)  which  produce  the  phenomenon  of  endosmosis,  or  that 
phenomenon  in  which  noxious  fluids  are  thrown  off,  while 
nutritive  are  absorbed. 

THE  STEM. 

That  part  of  the  vegetable  which  grows  in  an  inverse  di- 
rection with  the  root,  which  seeks  the  air  and  the  light,  bears 
flowers  and  leaves,  and  transfers  the  ascending  sap  to  these 
latter  from  the  roots.  All  vascular  vegetables  possess  this 
organ,  but  it  is  sometimes  excessively  short,  as  in  the  Hya- 
cinth, where  it  is  reduced  to  a  subterranean  platform.  The 
spot  where  the  root  joins  the  stem  is  called  the  neck.  We 
must  not  confound  with  the  stem  two  supports  of  certain 
Flowers,  both  without  leaves;  the  one  called  scape,  issues 
from  the  midst  of  the  radical  leaves  (example,  Hyacinth),  the 
other,  called  radical  peduncle,  issues  from  the  axil  of  a  leaf. 
The  tissue  of  the  stem  has  a  marked  influence  upon  the  ascent 
of  the  sap.  In  fact,  water  will  ascend  in  a  branch  which  we 
plunge  inverted  into  a  full  vessel ;  it  also  mounts  with  great 
celerity  and  force  in  a  slip  of  Vine,  cut  at  some  distance  from 
the  earth  and  stripped  of  its  leaves.  Hales,  a  celebrated 
English  physician,  in  an  experiment  of  this  nature,  saw  the 
liquid  raise  a  column  of  mercury  to  the  height  of  thirty-eight 
inches. 

THE  TRUNK. 

The  stem  of  dicotyledonous  Trees,  such  as  the  Beech,  the 
Oak,  &c.  It  is  characterized  externally  by  being  conical, 
that  is  to  say,  by  tapering  from  the  base  to  the  summit,  and 
by  being  divided,  at  its  upper  part,  into  boughs,  branches, 
and  ramuscules  or  twigs,  bearing  leaves  and  flowers.  Exa- 
mined internally,  it  exhibits  the  medullary  canal,  and,  upon 
the  circumference,  the  ligneous  beds  and  the  bark.  Its  dia- 
metrical increase  is  brought  about  by  the  annual  formation  of 


BOTANY.  153 

a  layer  of  wood  and  a  layer  of  bark,  organized  under  the  in- 
fluence of  a  liquid  called  the  sap.  Hence  it  happens  that  the 
oldest  layers  of  wood  are  at  the  centre,  and  the  more  recent  at 
the  circumference,  while,  with  the  bark,  the  reverse  is  the 
case. 

The  development  in  height  is  effected  by  buds,  which,  like 
so  many  young  plants,  contribute,  by  their  growth,  to  aug- 
ment the  diameter  of  the  base,  and  the  extent  of  the  plant 
considered  in  its  ensemble.  This  particular  mode  of  growth 
has  caused  the  trunk  to  be  called  the  ligneous  exogenous 
stem. 

THE  PITH. 

A  white  substance,  composed  of  hexagonal  cells,  abundant 
and  moist  in  the  shoots,  and  dry  in  the  old  branches;  it  is 
contained  in  a  canal  formed  principally  of  tracheals,  and 
called  the  Medullary  Sheath,  or  Canal. 

THE  LIGNEOUS  LAYERS. 

Formed  of  ligneous  fibres,  compacted  together,  and  disposed 
in  concentric  beds ;  the  oldest,  generally  of  a  deeper  colour, 
are  called  the  Wood,  or  heart,  the  new,  of  a  brighter  hue,  the 
alburnum. 

THE  BARK 

Is  formed  of  three  membranes,  placed  one  over  the  other. 
For  the  description  of  the  epidermis,  see  what  is  elsewhere 
said  concerning  Elementary  Tissues.  The  herbaceous  enve- 
lope is  a  plate  or  layer  of  cellular  tissue  placed  beneath  the 
epidermis,  the  parietes  of  whose  cells  contain  little  green 
grains,  called  globuline]  it  like  wise  contains  the  proper  juices. 
The  liber  is  formed  of  a  series  of  superimposed  laminse,  com- 
posing a  vascular  net,  the  meshes  of  which  are  filled  with 
cellular  tissue;  the  old  liber  forms  the  proper  cortical  cover- 
ing. The  medullary  rays  are  laminse  of  cellular  tissue  pass- 
ing in  the  direction  of  the  thickness  of  the  trunk,  from  the 
centre  to  the  circumference,  and,  in  a  horizontal  cut  of  the 
tree,  resembling  the  horary  lines  on  a  dial :  they  serve  to  esta- 
blish a  communication  between  the  pith  and  herbaceous  en- 
velope, 


154  BOTANY. 

STIPE. 

The  ligneous  stem  of  monocotyledonous  plants,  presenting 
the  appearance  of  a  column  of  the  same  diameter  throughout, 
except  occasionally  towards  the  middle,  which  is  a  little  in- 
flated. The  stipe  is  seldom  ramified,  and  is  crowned  by  a 
bunch  of  flowers  and  leaves,  forming  a  kind  of  capital.  In- 
ternally, the  fibres,  instead  of  composing  cones  fitting  toge- 
ther, are  scattered  in  the  midst  of  a  general  pith.  At  the  cir- 
cumference no  bark  is  seen.  The  oldest  ligneous  fibres, 
instead  of  being  at  the  centre,  are,  on  the  contrary,  pressed 
towards  the  outside,  on  account  of  the  particular  manner  in 
which  this  stem  developes  itself.  In  fact,  every  year  new 
fibres  arise  in  the  centre,  which  push  those  of  the  preceding 
year  towards  the  circumference.  The  debris  of  leaves  en- 
gendered by  these  new  fibres  form  a  kind  of  ring,  which  aug- 
ments with  the  total  length  of  the  tree.  This  mode  of  growth 
has  given  to  the  stipe  the  name  of  the  ligneous  endogenous 
stem. 

CULM. 

Stem  proper  to  grasses,  rarely  divided,  hollow  internally, 
and  exhibiting,  at  intervals,  nodes  or  compact  rings,  whence 
spring  alternate  sheath-like  leaves. 

PHIZOMA. 

The  subterranean  and  horizontal  stem  of  perennial  plants, 
concealed  entirely  or  partially  beneath  the  earth,  and  throw- 
ing out  from  their  anterior  extremity  new  shoots,  as  their  pos- 
terior extremity  decays. 

STEM  PROPER. 

The  common  stem  of  plants,  and  which  is  not  included  in 
any  of  the  preceding  species. 


BOTANY.  155 

ESSENTIAL  ORGANS. 
BUDS. 

Organs  inclosing  in  scales,  or  other  ligamentary  substances, 
rudiments  of  a  stem,  of  leaves,  or  of  flowers. 

BUDS  PROPERLY  SO  CALLED. 

Organs  of  various  form,  nature  and  aspect,  generally  com- 
posed of  imbricated  scales,  including  the  rudiments  of  stems, 
leaves,  or  organs  of  reproduction.  They  develope  themselves 
always  upon  the  branches,  at  the  axils  of  the  leaves  or  at  the 
extremity  of  the  twigs. 

We  distinguish  three  kinds  of  buds,  according  to  the  dif- 
ferent shoots  to  which  they  are  to  give  birth.  1st,  Leaf-buds, 
or  wood-buds,  which  only  shoot  forth  branches  charged  with 
leaves ;  they  are  elongated  and  pointed.  2d,  Flower-buds, 
which  produce  only  flowers,  and  which  are  commonly  de- 
signated as  buttons ;  they  are  short  and  rounded.  3d,  Mixed 
buds,  which  give  birth  to  both  flowers  and  leaves;  their  form 
is  between  those  of  the  two  preceding  classes. 

V  / 

TuRIONS. 

The  only  difference  between  the  turion  and  the  bud  pro- 
perly so  called  is  that  the  former  springs  always  from  a 
perennial  root,  or  rhizoma,  that  is  to  say  from  under  ground 
[Asparagus],  while  the  latter  developes  itself  invariably  upon 
a  part  exposed  to  the  air  and  light. 

BULBS. 

A  kind  of  subterranean  bud  appertaining  especially  to  pe- 
rennial monocotyledonous  plants ;  it  is  supported  by  a  kind 
of  solid  platform  intermediate  between  it  and  the  true  root; 
it  is  to  this  flattened  tubercle  that  the  fleshy  scales  or  tunics 
(coats)  which  form  the  bulb  externally  are  affixed  by  their 
basis;  the  interior  includes  the  rudiments  of  a  shaft  and 
leaves. 

We  distinguish  three  species  of  bulbs :  1st,  Tunicated  bulbs, 
which  are  formed  of  scales  of  a  single  piece,  fitting  one  upon  the 
other.  2d,  Scaly  bulbs,  the  scales  of  which  are  smaller,  free  at 
their  upper  edge,  and  covering  each  other  as  tiles  upon  a  roof. 


156  BOTANY. 

3d,  Solid  bulbs,  the  coats  of  which  are  so  compact  and  con- 
founded, that  they  are  indistinguishable,  and  seem  formed  of 
a  solid  and  homogeneous  substance;  this  last  however  is 
more  properly  called  a  cormus. 

TUBERCLES. 

This  name  is  given  to  short  and  thickened  portions  of  a 
subterranean  stem  which  holds  in  reserve  the  amidon  destined 
to  nourish  the  shoot  or  shoots  which  spring  from  them,  as 
we  see  in  the  Potato  and  the  Orchis.  When  small  they  are 
termed  tubercles. 

BULBILS. 

Small  solid  or  scaly  buds  growing  upon  different  parts  of 
the  plant,  and  capable  of  a  separate  vegetation. 

LEAVES. 

Appendages  of  stems,  generally  membranous,  plane,  and 
greenish,  in  which  the  vegetable  juices  (water  charged  with 
carbonic  acid)  being  put  in  relation  with  the  fluids  of  the 
atmosphere,  undergo  important  modifications  which  render 
them  nutritive.  Under  the  influence  of  the  solar  light,  the 
carbonic  acid  which  issues  either  from  the  part  absorbed 
with  the  water,  by  the  spongioli,  or  from  the  part  absorbed 
by  the  leaves,  is  decomposed ;  the  oxygen  is  exhaled ;  the 
carbon  forms  matter  eminently  combustible,  such  as  lignine 
or  wood,  saccharine,  gum  and  amidon.  This  respiration  of 
leaves  is  accompanied  by  a  very  abundant  aqueous  exhala- 
tion ;  about  two-thirds  of  the  water  absorbed  by  the  roots. 

We  must  regard  the  leaves  as  formed  by  the  expansion  of 
a  collection  or  bundle  of  vessels,  which,  in  some  measure, 
compose  their  skeleton  or  veins ;  the  intervals  left  between 
the  veins  are  filled  by  a  substance  analogous  with  the  herba- 
ceous envelope,  parenchyma,  which  is  moulded  around  these 
veins  as  the  soft  parts  of  animals  around  the  bony  system. 
It  is  evident  that  the  general  form  of  the  leaf  depends  upon 
the  disposition  of  the  principal  veins,  and  that  the  modifica- 
tions exhibited  by  the  edge  of  the  same  leaf  depend  upon  the 
disposition  of  the  secondary  veins,  the  tertiary,  &c.  When- 
ever the  principal  or  secondary  veins  are  sufficiently  near 


BOTANY.  157 

together  for  the  veins  which  spring  from  them  to  unite 
themselves  at  least  at  their  base,  the  leaf  is  called  simple  (PI. 
42,  Fig.  2);  whenever,  on  the  contrary,  this  junction  cannot 
be  effected,  and  the  veins  surrounded  by  the  parenchyma  are 
separated  by  clefts,  the  leaf  is  said  to  be  divided ;  where 
several  secondary  parts  are  attached  to  a  common  petiole, 
each  remaining  distinct  and  free,  the  leaf  will  be  compound 
(PI.  41,  Fig.  4),  and  the  parts  will  bear  the  name  of  folioles. 
The  leaves  are  sessile  when  they  attach  themselves  by  their 
base  to  the  stem  or  branches ;  they  are  petiolate  when  they 
attach  themselves  to  a  support  called  petiole  or  foot  stalk ;  the 
angle  which  the  leaf  makes  with  the  stem  is  called  the  axil', 
the  wide  portion  of  the  leaf  is  termed  the  limb ;  it  has  two 
faces,  the  superior  and  inferior*. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  FIGURES  ON  PLATES  42,  43. 

Fig.  1,  2  :  Parallel  veined  leaves. 

Fig.  2,  3  :  Penniverved  or  feather-veined  leaves. 

Fig.  4 :  Same,  compound. 

Fig.  5,  6  :  Palminerved  or  radiated  leaves. 

Fig.  7  :  Same,  compound. 

Fig.  8,  9  :  Pedatinerved  leaves. 

Fig.  10  :  Same,  compound. 

Fig.  11,  12  :  Peltinerved  or  peltate  leaves. 

Fig.  13 :  Same,  compound. 

EXPLANATION  OF  THE  FIGURES  ON  PLATE  45. 

Fig.  A:  1,  monopetalous  corolla;  2,  monosepalous  calyx. 

Fig.  B  :  Irregular  polypetalous  corolla. 

Fig.  C  :  Regular  polypetalous  corolla. 

Fig.  D  :  Mode  in  which  the  pollen  is  disposed  in  an  anther. 

Fig.  E  :  Granules  of  the  pollen  floating  in  the  fovilla. 

Fig.  F  :  Dehiscence  of  an  anther. 

Fig.  G:  1,  filament;  2,  anther. 

Fig.  H:  1,  stigma;  2,  style;  3,  germen. 

Fig,  K :  Hypogenous  stamens. 

Fig.  L  :  Perigenous  stamens. 


158  BOTANY. 

Fig.  P  :  Germen  cut  to  show  the  ovules. 

Fig.  R :  Round  pollen,  the  external  membrane  of  which 
bursts,  and  the  interval  forms  a  species  of  tube  which  bursts  in 
its  turn  and  suffers  the  pollenic  granules  to  escape. 

Fig.  T  :  Section  of  a  stigma,  to  show  how  it  is  traversed  by 
the  grains  of  the  pollen. 

Fig.  X:  1,  stigma;  2,  conducting  tissue;  3,  expansion  of 
the  conducting  tissue  to  receive  the  ovule;  4,  epicarp;  5, 
endocarp  ;  6,  nutritive  vessels  of  the  ovule ;  7,  raphe ;  8, 
chalaza;  9,  primine;  10,  secundine;  11,  exostome  and  en- 
dostome ;  12,  tercine ;  13,  embryo. 


ACCESSORY  ORGANS. 

STIPULES. 

Appendages  of  the  leaves  situated  on  the  base  of  the  petiole 
and  presenting  the  appearance  of  small  leaves  or  scales. 
[Plate  43,  Fig.  M.] 

TENDRILS. 

Simple  threads  or  branches  which  roll  themselves  spirally 
around  foreign  bodies  to  sustain  the  stems  which  are  provided 
with  them.  [Same  Fig.] 

THORNS 

Are  abortive  branches  and  differ  from  prickles  in  being  a 
continuation  of  the  ligneous  fibre.  [Plate  43,  Fig.  N.] 

PRICKLES. 

Appendages  of  the  stem  or  branches,  simply  articulated 
with  the  ligneous  fibres.  [Plate  43,  Fig.  O.] 


INFLORESCENCE. 

We  give  this  name  to  the  general  disposition  or  arrange- 
ment assumed  by  the  flowers  upon  the  stems  or  other  organs 


BOTANY.  159 

which  support  them.  The  flower  may  be  borne  upon  a  spe- 
cies of  foot-stalk  called  peduncle ;  or  even  attached  imme- 
diately by  its  base,  it  is  then  sessile.  When  the  peduncle  is 
ramified,  each  of  the  divisions  bearing  a  flower  takes  the  name 
of  pedicel;  the  small  leaves,  entirely  different  from  the  others, 
which  are  often  found  about  one  or  several  united  flowers, 
are  called  bractes;  a  symmetrical  disposition  of  these  organs 
around  one  or  more  flowers,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  accessory 
envelope,  bears  the  appellation  of  involucrum.  Many  mono- 
tyledons  have  large  alternate  sheath-like  bractes,  which  en- 
velope the  flowers  in  their  first  development,  and  which  ex- 
pand, little  by  little,  in  the  form  of  a  horn ;  these  are  spathes. 
When  there  is  only  one  flower  upon  a  plant,  the  inflorescence 
is  said  to  be  unifloral;  when  there  are  two,  it  is  termed  gemi- 
nate ;  when  three,  female;  when  several  from  the  same  node, 
verticulate.  There  are  two  classes  of  inflorescence. 

CLASS  I.     CENTRIPETAL  OR  INDEFINITE. 

Flowers  springing  from  the  axil  of  the  leaves,  and  expand- 
ing from  the  circumference  to  the  centre.  The  varieties  may 
be  referred  to  two  types. 

TYPE  I.     SPIKE. 

Flowers  sessile  in  the  axil  of  several  leaves  or  bractes,  and 
not  detaching  themselves  after  the  florescence.  [Wheaty 
Rye,  &c.] 

CATKIN  OR  AMENT. 

Spike  composed  of  male  or  female  flowers  only,  surrounded 
by  scales  like  bractes,  withering  and  falling  after  florescence, 
[Hazel,  Willow.] 

CONE. 

Spike  where  the  flowers  are  provided  with  very  large 
bractes,  or  such  as  are  susceptible  of  increase  after  florescence, 
and  which  often  have  the  appearance  of  an  unique  whole. 
[Pine.] 

SPADIX. 

Spike  with  a  fleshy  axis  peculiar  to  monocotyledons,  and, 


160  BOTANY. 

« 

while  young,  enveloped  in  a  large   bracte   called   spathe. 
[Simple  spadix,  Arum ;  ramified  spadix,  Date.] 

RACEME. 

Flowers  borne  upon  peduncles  more  or  less  elongated,  and 
diminishing  in  size  from  the  base  to  the  summit.  [Wild 
Cherry.] 

THYRSE. 

A  compound  raceme  in  which  the  middle  peduncles  are 
the  longest,  and  are  subdivided;  differs  from  a  panicle  in 
being  very  dense.  [Lilac.] 

PANICLE. 

.    A  raceme  where  the  pedicels  along  the  main  peduncle  are 
divided  and  scattered.     [Oats.] 

CORYMB. 

Like  the  umbel  in  appearance;  but  the  peduncles  stand  at 
different  points  on  the  main  stem,  but  elevate  the  flowers  to 
nearly  the  same  height,  [Yarrow.] 

TYPE  II.     UMBEL. 

Peduncles  springing  from  the  same  point  of  the  stem,  like 
the  braces  of  an  umbrella  bearing  floret  on  their  extremities. 
The  simple  umbel  has  the  peduncles  non-ramified.  [Prim- 
rose.] The  composite  umbel  has  the  peduncles  divided  into 
pedicels.  [Wild  Carrots.] 

CAPITULE. 

Umbel  where  the  pedicels  are  excessively  short ;  flowers 
in  great  number,  and  so  close  set  that  they  may  be  taken  at 
a  distance  for  a  single  flower. 

CLASS  II.     CENTRIFUGAL  OR  DEFINITE. 

Stem  terminated  by  a  central  flower,  having  at  its  base 
generally  two  bractes,  producing  from  their  axil  two  new 
branches  with  a  terminal  flower,  and  so  on.  They  are  called 
centrifugal,  because  the  expansion  of  the  flowers  takes  place 
from  the  one  central  flower  to  those  of  the  circumference. 
All  the  inflorescences  of  this  kind  are  comprised  in  the  generic 
title  cyme.  [Euphorbium,  Chickweed.]  The  cyme  re- 


BOTANY.  161 

sembles  the  umbel  in  the  peduncles  arising  from  the  same 
point,  but  differs  in  their  being  variously  and  alternately 
subdivided. 


GRAFT. 

Grafting  consists  in  producing  artificially  the  union  of  two 
plants.  A  portion  of  one  is  taken,  called  the  graft,  and  placed 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  other,  which  is  termed  the 
subject.  The  first  condition  of  success  is,  to  obtain  a  pro- 
longed contact  between  fresh  and  living  organs  of  two  plants. 
In  dicotyledons  it  is  the  aubier  and  liber,  especially  the  point 
of  junction  where  the  cambium  is,  which  offer  the  best 
chances  of  success ;  since  it  is  here  that  the  tissue  is  forming, 
or  has  just  been  formed.  The  second  condition  is,  that  this 
contact  be  established  between  analogous  vegetables :  the 
greater  the  analogy  the  more  readily  will  the  graft  take. 
The  operation  is  not  always  possible  between  plants  of  the 
same  family,  and  it  is  impossible  between  plants  of  different 
families.  There  are  a  great  many  methods  of  grafting,  but 
we  must  content  ourselves  with  indicating  the  principal 

GRAFT  BY  APPROXIMATION. 

Two  neighbouring  trees  being  left  unrooted,  a  branch  of 
each  is  bent  down,  and  the  two  limbs  strongly  tied  together, 
spots  being  brought  in  contact  where  the  aubier  is  naked. 
When  the  junction  is  effected  one  of  the  branches  may  be 

cut  off  below. 

/• 

GRAFT  BY  LIGNEOUS  SCIONS. 

A  branch  is  cut,  like  a  sort  of  bud,  so  as  to  be  fitted  to  the  top 
of  a  branch  of  another  tree.  Care  must  be  taken  so  to  cut 
the  graft  and  notch  the  subject,  that  they  may  be  exactly 
adapted.  The  notches  are  made  in  various  ways.  The  most 
simple  is  to  cut  the  subject  so  as  to  make  the  insertion  in  a 
simple  slit ;  this  is  termed  cleft-grafting ;  when  several  scions 
or  grafts  are  inserted  upon  a  large  truncated  branch,  it  is 
called  crown-grafting. 
v 


162  BOTANY. 

GRAFT  BY  BUDS. 

A  slip  of  bark,  having  one  or  two  buds,  is  exactly  fitted  to 
the  subject,  in  the  place  of  a  similar  slip  removed ;  the  whole 
is  tied  up  to  produce  an  immediate  contact,  and  to  prevent 
injury  from  the  wind  or  sun.  When  the  strip  of  bark  con- 
tains only  one  bud  it  is  called  a  shield-graft ;  when  there  are 
several,  and  the  strip  is  circular,  it  is  an  annular  graft.  By 
these  means  three  hundred  and  thirty-six  varieties  of  apples 
may  be  engrafted  upon  an  old  Pear  tree. 

HERBACEOUS  GRAFT. 

This  does  not  differ  greatly  from  the  others  as  to  the  man- 
ner of  fitting  the  scions  or  getting  the  buds ;  but  it  is  practised 
upon  herbs  or  upon  tender  shoots  of  trees.  In  this  way  the 
Melon  has  been  grafted  upon  the  Cucumber,  and  the  Tomato 
upon  the  Potato. 


THE  FLOWER. 

This  name  is  given  to  the  union  of  the  organs  destined  to 
accomplish  the  reproduction,  by  germs,  of  phanerogamous 
plants.  The  flower  is  composed  of  leaves  in  a  particular 
stage  of  transformation^  springing  from  the  extremity  of  the 
stem  or  its  branches,  and  arranged  in  regular  verticels  or 
whorls.  These  verticels  are  various  in  number ;  they  have 
a  great  tendency  to  become  united,  and  their  form  differs 
from  that  of  the  leaf  in  proportion  to  their  distance  from  the 
outer  edge  of  the  flower.  They  are  divided  into  four  classes : 
the  calyx,  externally ;  then  the  corolla  and  the  stamens,  and, 
within  them,  the  pistils  which  crown  the  germs  or  ovules 
which  become  seeds.  The  calyx  and  the  pistils  are  generally 
composed  of  a  single  verticel;  but  the  corolla  and  the  sta- 
mens are  sometimes  composed  of  many  fitting  together. 
Each  verticel  is  ordinarily  composed  of  five  pieces  in  the 
dicotyledons,  and  of  three  in  the  monocotyledons.  The  por- 
tion of  the  stem,  or  of  the  branches,  which  supports  the 
verticels,  is  called  the  torus  or  receptacle. 


BOTANY.  163 

i  ^ 

THE  CALYX. 

The  parts  of  the  calyx  called  the  sepals  form  a  primary  ex- 
ternal envelope.  The  analogy  of  these  pieces  with  the  leaves 
is  evident ;  like  these  latter,  they  are  often  plane,  green,  and 
furnished  with  stomata;  they  present,  too,  the  same  internal 
organization,  and  fulfil  the  same  physiological  function.  They 
are  often  united,  more  or  less  completely.  When  the  calyx 
has  the  sepals  thus  united,  it  is  called  gamomosepalous  or 
monosepalous,  and  when  they  are  free,  polysepalous.  The  co- 
herent portion  of  a  monosepalous  calyx  is  called  the  tube,  and 
its  border  the  limb. 

COROLLA. 

Formed  by  one  or  several  verticels  of  pieces  called  petals, 
generally  of  a  brilliant  colour,  and  exhaling  odours  more  or 
less  grateful.  The  corolla  is  called  monopetalous,  or  gamope- 
talous,  or  polypetalous,  according  to  the  union  or  freedom  of 
the  petals.  The  expansion  of  the  petal  is  termed  the  limb ; 
and  may  be  either  entire  or  divided,  regular  or  irregular ; 
when  the  point  of  attachment  in  the  petal  is  narrow,  it  is 
termed  an  unguis  (claw). 

THE  STAMENS. 

One  or  more  organs  within  the  petals,  and  having  with  them 
great  analogy  of  position  and  transformation ;  they  are  inserted 
upon  the  torus,  close  to  the  petals,  often  adhering  to  them, 
and  are  even  transformed  into  these  organs,  as  in  double 
Roses,  where  we  often  observe  such  a  change  to  take  place. 
When  there  is  but  one  verticel  of  stamens,  they  are  equal  in 
number  with  the  petals  and  (except  in  a  few  cases)  alternate 
with  them.  When  there  are  several  verticels,  each  is  com- 
posed of  the  same  number  of  pieces,  and  the  total  number  of 
the  stamens  is  a  multiple  of  that  of  the  petals.  The  stamens 
perform  an  important  part  in  the  business  of  reproduction. 
When  these  organs  are  attached  beneath  the  germen  [PL  45, 
Fig.  L].  they  are  denominated  hypogenous\  when  upon  the 
calyx  [Fig.  K],perigenous;  and  when  upon  the  superior  part 
of  the  germen  [Fig.  G],  epigenous.  A  flower  without  stamens 
is  called  a  female  flower. 


164  BOTANY, 

THE  FILAMENT. 

A  part  which  is  sometimes  deficient  or  exceedingly  short, 
which  is  usually  cylindrical,  rarely  flattened,  and  of  a  con- 
sistency and  nature  analogous  with  the  petals ;  it  is  never 
green.  It  is  a  support  of  the  anther,  as  the  petiole  is  of  the 
leaf,  and  the  claw  is  of  the  petals. 

THE  ANTHER. 

This  organ  may  be  compared  to  the  limb  of  the  leaf,  of 
which  the  filament  would  be  the  petiole ;  this  limb,  narrow 
and  thick,  includes  generally  two  compartments,  containing 
the  pollen ;  the  opening  of  these  compartments  is  usually  in 
the  direction  of  their  length  [PL  45,  Fig.  F],  but  may  be  ef- 
fected in  various  ways,  as  Fig.  O. 

THE  POLLEN 

Is  composed  of  a  multitude  of  little  yellow  or  reddish  grains, 
which  generally  escape,  in  the  form  of  dust,  from  the  interior 
of  the  compartments,  and  which,  by  their  fall  upon  the 
stigma,  and  the  rupture  of  their  envelope,  permit  exceedingly 
small  granules,  swimming  in  the  midst  of  a  liquid  called  fo- 
villa,  to  introduce  themselves  within  the  ovary,  there  to  form, 
in  their  development,  the  germ  destined  to  reproduce  the 
plant,  and  called  on  this  account  the  embryo. 

THE  CARPELS  OR  PISTILS. 

The  last  series  of  organs  as  we  proceed  to  the  centre  of  the 
flower ;  composed  of  leaves  more  or  less  folded  on  the  inte- 
rior side  and  which  bear  upon  their  edges  the  ovules  destined 
to  become  seeds.  Besides  the  name  of  carpels,  we  also  give 
to  these  leaves  that  of  pistils,  which  was  formerly  applied  to 
the  ensemble  of  the  organ,  of  whatever  nature  it  might  be, 
and  now,  by  preference,  to  the  united  carpels,  when  not  very 
.  numerous.  The  carpels  are  then  considered  as  compart- 
ments. A  flower  without  carpels  is  termed  a  male  flower. 

THE  GERMEN 

Or  germ  is  a  name  given  to  the  tumefied  inferior  portion 
of  the  pistil ;  it  is  the  limb  of  the  leaf  in  its  largest  part. 
The  ovules  are  ranged  within  upon  the  two  edges,  which 


BOTANY.  165 

fold  towards  the  centre  of  the  flower,  and  are  united,  at  least 
in  all  the  isolated  carpels.  The  filament  which  supports  them 
is  called  the  funiculus ;  the  point  of  the  junction  of  the  funi- 
cle  and  ovule,  the  hilum.  Before  expansion,  the  ovules  pre- 
sent the  appearance  of  pulpy  excrescences  without  envelope 
or  aperture ;  a  little  while  afterwards  the  culminating  point 
is  pierced,  and  we  distinguish  a  small  ovoid  body  (nucleus) 
enveloped  at  its  base  by  two  membranes,  the  exterior  called 
primine,  the  interior  secondine ;  the  common  point  of  union 
of  these  two  membranes  is  at  the  base  of  the  ovary  and  is 
called  the  chalaza',  the  primine  and  secondine  do  not  entirely 
cover  the  nucleus,  but  leave  at  the  apex  a  round  aperture 
called  the  foramen  sometimes;  the  raphe  is  a  line  or  ridge 
passing  from  the  ovule  to  the  chalaza,  being  the  upper  portion 
of  the  funiculus  attached  to  the  face  of  the  ovule ;  the  aper- 
ture of  the  primine  is  termed  the  ezostome,  and  that  of  the 
secondine  the  endostome.  This  time  of  the  greatest  expan- 
sion of  the  foramen  coincides  with  that  of  the  fall  of  the 
pollen  upon  the  stigma,  so  that  the  pollenous  grains,  travers- 
ing the  cells  of  the  style,  may  reach  the  interior  of  the  ovules, 
and  fecundate  them ;  after  which  it  contracts  and  closes  en- 
tirely when  the  ovule  becomes  a  seed. 

THE  STYLE. 

The  superior  prolongation  of  the  germen,  much  narrower 
than  it,  and  often  as  fine  as  a  thread.  When  the  carpels  are 
united,  the  styles  or  stigmata,  or  even  both,  are  often  likewise 
united,  and  this  part  may  even  be  wanting. 

STIGMA. 

A  naked  point  without  epidermis  or  cellular  tissue,  and 
bedewed  with  a  viscous  humour  which  it  secretes.  It  pos- 
sesses the  property  of  absorbing  liquids,  especially  ihefovilla. 


166  BOTANY. 

THE  FRUIT. 

This  name  is  given  to  the  carpels  when  grown ;  the  ovules, 
in  growing,  become  seeds.  The  fruit  contains  two  parts,  the 
pericarp  and  the  seed. 

THE  PERICARP. 

The  pericarp  is  that  part  of  a  ripe  and  perfect  fruit  formed 
by  the  parietes  of  the  fecundated  germen,  and  containing  in 
its  interior  one  or  several  seeds.  It  is  composed  of  three 
parts — the  surface  or  exterior  membrane  (epicarp),  the  inte- 
rior membrane  (endocarp),  and  the  intervals  between  the  two 
(mesocarp).  The  epicarp  often  has  hairs,  glands  or  stomata; 
it  is  easily  taken  off  under  the  form  of  a  transparent  pellicle 
in  the  legume  of  Beans ;  it  is  the  velvet  skin  of  the  Peach ; 
it  is  rarely  thick  or  hard.  The  endocarp  varies  greatly  in 
nature,  consistency,  colour,  &c. ;  in  the  legume  of  Peas  it  is 
green  like  the  epicarp ;  in  the  Almond  it  forms  what  we 
vulgarly  call  the  shell ;  in  the  Peach  and  Cherry  it  is  the 
bony  part  of  the  nut  or  kernel.  The  mesocarp  is  sometimes 
so  fine  as  scarcely  to  be  distinguishable,  while  at  other  times 
it  is  thick  and  fleshy,  as  in  the  Apricot,  the  Peach,  &c. 

Fruit  are  said  to  be  dehiscent  when,  on  ripening,  the  peri- 
carp splits  open  and  allows  the  seeds  to  be  dispersed ;  when, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  pericarp  remains  closed  throughout 
the  whole  of  its  existence,  it  is  said  to  be  indehiscent.  Every 
carpel  is  more  or  less  two-edged,  one  edge  representing  the 
nudrib  of  a  leaf,  and  the  others  the  margins  united ;  these 
edges  are  called  the  sutures,  the  former  the  dorsal,  the  latter 
the  ventral  suture ;  to  this  the  seeds  are  attached  in  all  sim- 
ple fruits.  Fruits  are  said  to  be  inferior  when  the  calyx  is 
placed  on  the  apex  of  the  germ,  and  superior  when  below  the 
germ. 

Class  /.     Jlpocarps. 
Simple  fruits  formed  of  free  carpels.     Two  sections. 


BOTANY. 


167 


LEGUMEN. 


DEHISCENT. 

!A  follicle  is  a  carpel  opening  longitudinally 
by  the  ventral  suture;  pericarp  not  fleshy, 
often  foliaceous.  [Ranunculus.] 

f  A  legume  is  a  carpel  unique  and  opening 
longitudinally  in  two  valves,  both  at  the 
dorsal  and  ventral  suture ;  pericarp  but  lit- 
tle or  not  at  all  fleshy,  of  an  elongated  form, 
and  compressed  at  the  sides.  [Bean,  Aca- 

Lcia.] 


NON  DEHISCENT. 

A  drupe  is  a  mesocarp  fleshy ;  endocarp 
coriaceous  or  bony;  carpel  generally  single 
in    each  flower,   with  one   or    two    seeds, 
_  [Peach,  Plum.] 


DRUPA. 


Or  grain  is  an  indehiscent  carpel,  bony,, 
generally  small,  containing  a  single  grain,  not 
ACHJENIUM        <>  united  with  the  pericarp.     The  Strawberry 
is  an  accumulation  of  small  grains  upon  a 
^  fleshy  torus. 

Class  II.     Syncarps. 

Composite  fruits  formed  of  two  or  more  carpels  of  the  same- 
flower  united.  Two  orders.  Those  fastened  to  the  calyx, 
and  those  not  fastened  to  the  calyx.  The  first  order  has  twa 
sections,  dehiscent  and  non  dehiscent. 


NON  DEHISCENT. 

f  Pericarp  one-celled,  by  abortion,  termi- 
\  nated  in  the  flower  by  two  or  three  stigmata, 
I  and  united  with  a  single  seed.  [Wheat, 
[Maize.] 


CARIOPSIS. 


SAMARA. 


f     Compartments  projecting  externally  under 
J  the  form  of  dorsal  wings,  from  a  dry,  inde- 
I  hiscent,  two  or  more  celled  fruit.     [Maple, 
I  Ash.] 


168 


BOTANY. 


HESPERIDIUM. 


SILIQU. 


CAPSULA. 


PYXIDIUM. 


Epicarps  united  externally  in  a  coriaceous 
skin,  almost  always  concealing  the  juncture 
of  the  carpels,  which  are  easily  separated  by 
the  hand,  provided  that  the  endocarp  adhere 
but  slightly  to  the  rest  of  the  pericarp.  [Ci- 
tron, Orange.] 


DEHISCENT. 

f     A  silique  consists  of  two  carpels  united 
j  throughout  their  length  in  a  dry,  bivalved 

<  fruit,  with  a  thin  partition ;  seeds  attached 
I  to  the  two  edges  of  the  partition  in  each  com- 
[partment.     [Cabbage,  Radish.] 

f  A  capsule  consists  of  two  or  several  carpels 
J  united  in  a  dry,  dehiscent,  many  seeded  fruit, 
I  in  any  manner  whatever.  [Water-Lily, 
[Poppy.] 

f     Capsule  opening  in  the  middle  by  a  cir- 

<  cular,  horizontal  fissure.    [Chickweed,  Purs- 
[lain.] 


The  second  order  has  two  sections,  fleshy  and  not  fleshy. 

NOT  FLESHY. 

f     Two  or  several  carpels  united  with  the 

tube  of  the  calyx,  and  internally  with  their 
CREMOCARPIUM.  <          ,  j         i  •  .•        r 

I  single  seed ;  when  ripe,  separating  from  a 

L  common  axis.     [Umbelliferse.] 


CYPESELA. 


GLANS. 


f  A  single  carpel,  by  abortion  of  the  others, 
J  indehiscent,  united  with  the  calyx,  and  con- 
gaining  a  single  seed,  [Composites.] 

f     Pericarp  coriaceous  or  ligneous,  indehis- 
j  cent,  unilocular  by  abortion,  containing  one 
I  or  many  grains,  and  surrounded  at  the  base 
[by  a  cupule.     [Hazel,  Oak.] 


BOTANY.  109 

FLESHY. 

(Several  indehiscent  carpels,  with  a  carti- 
laginous or  bony  pericarp,  enveloped  by  a 
fleshy  calyx,  united  with  them,  and  indehis- 
I  cent.     The  remains  of  the  stamens  and  the 
j  lobes  of  the  calyx  are  seen  at  the  upper  por- 
(tion.     [Apple,  Pear.] 

f"     Several   verticillated   carpels,   forming  a 
p  J  one-celled  fleshy  fruit,  to  the  internal  walls 

I  of  which  the  seeds  are  attached.     [Melon, 
[Gourd.] 

(A  many  celled  fruit,  with  calyx  and  peri- 
carp pulpy,  indehiscent;  seeds  surrounded 
with  pulp,  and  easily  separated  from  their 
L point  of  attachment.     [Gooseberry,  Grape.] 

Class  IIL     Polyanthocarps. 

Fruits  aggregated  by  the  approximation  or  junction  of  many 

flowers. 

f     Or  cone  is  an  assemblage  of  sessile  fruits, 

g  J  composed  each  of  a  pericarp  in  the  form  of  a 

|  convex  scale,  and  of  seeds  situated  at  the  base 
[of  the  pericarp.     [Pine,  Fir.] 

1A  concave,  fleshy  receptacle,  surrounding, 
more  or  less,  small  distinct  fruits,  and  pro- 
ceeding from  a  multitude  of  flowers.  [Fig.] 

f     Carpels  of  several  flowers  united  by  the 

circumjacent   floral   envelopes,  bractes  and 
SORUS.  {  ,.      ,    J  ,,      .  V  rA 

I  floral    axes    adhering    together.       [Anana, 

[Bread-Fruit,  Mulberry.] 

THE  SEED. 

The  seed  is  that  part  of  a  perfect  fruit  which  is  to  repro- 
duce a  new  vegetable.     No  naked  seeds  exist,  strictly  speak- 
ing ;  but  the  pericarp  is  sometimes  so  fine,  and  adheres  so 
closely  to  the  seed,  that  it  is  with  difficulty  distinguished, 
w 


170  BOTANY. 

The  seed  includes  four  parts,  of  which  two  are  never  de- 
ficient. 

THE  ARILLUS. 

An  expansion  of  the  apex  of  the  funicle  around  the  seed, 
which  is  only  seen  in  a  few  species ;  it  may  be  fleshy,  pulpy, 
or  even  membranous.  This,  in  the  Nutmeg,  forms  what  is 
called  the  mace. 

THE  SPERMODERM  OR  EPISPERM. 

An  organ  which  is  never  deficient,  which  forms  the  proper 
tegument  of  the  seed,  and  is  simple  or  composed  of  two  mem- 
branes, the  testa  and  the  tegmen.  The  former  is  the  exterior 
membrane,  so  called  on  account  of  its  coriaceous  nature ;  it 
is  smooth,  and  absorbs  moisture  with  great  facility.  The 
latter  is  the  internal  membrane ;  it  is  not  smooth,  and  does 
not  absorb  water. 

THE  ALBUMEN  OR  ENDOSPERM. 

An  intermediate  body,  which  frequently  exists  between 
the  embryo  and  the  spermoderm  ;  it  is  composed  of  diverse 
matters,  fleshy,  farinaceous,  oily,  or  analogous  to  horn.  In 
the  nut  of  the  Cocoa  the  milky  part  is  the  albumen ;  it  is 
visible  also  in  Maize,  Rice,  &c. 

THE  EMBRYO. 

The  rudiment  of  the  young  plant,  protected  and  nourished 
by  all  the  envelopes  and  liquids  of  which  we  have  spoken. 
Under  the  influence  of  light,  moisture,  oxygen  and  heat  the 
plant  is  developed.  This  phenomenon  is  termed  germination. 
The  embryo  consists  of 

THE  RADICLE. 

A  little  simple  root,  usually  fine  and  pointed,  sometimes 
thick  and  obtuse,  and  the  length  of  which  varies.  In  the  act 
of  germination  the  water  reaches  the  radicle  first,  which  is 
inflated  or  elongated  in  diverse  ways. 

THE  PLUMULA, 

Or  young  stem,  sometimes  scarcely  visible.  In  the  seed 
it  is  composed  of  two  parts,  one  beneath  the  cotyledons,  the 
tigclla,  the  other  above,  the  gemmula. 


BOTANY.  171 

COTYLEDONS. 

Small  lateral  inflations  of  the  embryo,  as  many  as  one  or 
two,  or  even  more.  Cotyledons  of  a  foliaceous  nature  have 
stomata ;  grow  more  or  less  green  in  germination ;  fleshy  or 
farinaceous  cotyledons  have  no  stomata,  never  grow  green, 
and  diminish  in  volume  during  germination. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  PLANTS. 

Two  methods  have  been  followed  in  classifying  plants ; 
one  is  called  the  artificial,  the  other  the  natural  method :  the 
object  of  the  former  is  to  afford  an  easy  mode  to  recognize  in- 
dividuals; the  latter  to  arrange  them  according  to  their  natural 
affinities.  In  one  point  both  of  these  methods  agree,  viz., 
the  subdividing  the  vegetable  kingdom  into  groups  of  more 
or  less  importance,  as  follows:  classes,  subclasses,  orders, 
genera  and  species.  The  artificial  system  of  Linnaeus  is  that 
which  is  at  present,  with  some  modifications,  universally 
adopted.  The  classes  of  this  system  are  twenty-four  in 
number,  and  are  founded  upon  characters  drawn  from  the 
number,  situation,  proportion,  &c.  of  the  stamens.  The  first 
eleven  classes  are  characterized  by  the  numbers  of  stamens, 
and  expressed  by  names  derived  from  the  Greek. 

Class  1.  Monandria;  perfect  flowers,  with  only  one 
stamen. 

Class    2.     Diandria ;  2  stamens. 

Class    3.     Triandria ;  3  stamens. 

Class    4.     Tetrandria ;  4  stamens. 

Class    5.     Pentandria ;  5  stamens. 

Class    6.     Hexandria;  6  stamens. 

Class    7.     Heptandria;  7  stamens. 

Class    8.     Octandria ;  8  stamens. 

Class    9.     Enneandria ;  9  stamens. 

Class  10.     Decandria;  10  stamens. 

Class  11.     Dodecandria;  12  to  29  stamens. 

The  next  two  classes  derive  their  characters  from  the 
number  and  insertion  of  the  stamens ;  the  number  in  both 
being  twenty  or  more. 

"• 


172  BOTANY. 

Class  12.     They  are  adherent  to  the  calyx. 

Class  13.     They  are  not  adherent  to  the  calyx. 

The  two  succeeding  classes  are  founded  upon  the  relative 
length  of  the  stamens. 

Class  14.  Didynamia ;  4  stamens,  two  of  which  are  longer 
than  the  other  two. 

Class  15.  Tetradynamia ;  6  stamens,  four  of  which  are 
longer  than  the  other  two. 

Then  come  four  classes  founded  upon  the  connection  of 
the  stamens  with  each  other. 

Class  16.  Monadelphia;  all  the  filaments  united  together 
to  form  a  tube,  the  anthers  themselves  remaining  free. 

Class  17.  Diadelphia ;  the  filaments  united  into  two  sets, 
anthers  free. 

Class  18.  Polyadelphia ;  the  filaments  united  into  more 
than  two  sets,  anthers  free. 

Class  19.  Syngenesia ;  filaments  and  anthers  united  into 
a  tube. 

The  succeeding  four  classes  are  founded  on  the  relation  of 
the  stamens  to  the  pistil. 

Class  20.  Gynandria ;  stamens  adhering  to  or  apparently 
growing  out  of  the  pistil. 

Class  21.  Monoecia;  stamens  and  pistils  in  different 
flowers,  but  on  the  same  plant. 

Class  22.  Dio3cia ;  stamens  and  pistils  in  different  flowers, 
and  also  in  different  plants. 

Class  23.  Polygamia ;  stamens  and  pistils  separate  in 
some  flowers  and  united  in  others,  and  either  all  on  the  same 
or  different  plants. 

The  last  class  has  no  flowers  properly  so  called. 

Class  24.  Cryptogamia;  no  stamens  or  pistil,  or  those 
in  which  these  essential  organs  cannot  be  discovered. 


GEOLOGY 


GEOLOGY. 

Historical  Table  of  the  Revolutions  of  the  Globe. 

INTRODUCTION. 

THE  earth  which  we  inhabit  is  one  of  eleven  planets  which 
revolve  around  the  sun.  It  has  two  motions  :  one  of  rotation, 
which  it  performs  in  twenty-three  hours,  fifty-six  minutes, 
four  seconds,  and  whence  results  the  alternation  of  day  and 
night ;  the  other  of  projection  around  the  sun,  or  the  annual 
motion,  which  is  completed  in  three  hundred  and  sixty-five 
days,  five  hours,  forty-eight  minutes  and  forty-five  seconds. 
Its  form  is  that  of  a  sphere  flattened  towards  the  poles.  Its 
surface  is  about  twenty-five  million  seven  hundred  and  ninety 
thousand  four  hundred  and  forty  square  leagues,  three-fourths 
of  which  are  occupied  by  the  sea.  Its  semi-diameter  at  the 
equator  is  about  one  thousand  four  hundred  and  thirty-five 
leagues.  The  science  which  treats  of  the  structure  and  com- 
position of  the  globe,  together  with  the  changes  it  has  expe- 
rienced since  its  first  existence,  is  called  Geology.  The 
principal  fact  upon  which  this  branch  of  human  knowledge 
reposes  is  the  increase  of  heat  which  has  been  remarked  in 
descending  mines,  and  which,  at  its  least  expression,  is  about 
one  degree  for  about  every  twenty-five  metres  of  depth; 
whence  it  would  result,  if  we  suppose  this  increase  to  con- 
tinue in  the  same  proportion,  that,  at  the  depth  of  a  half 
league,  water  could  no  longer  remain  liquid,  and  that  at 
twenty  or  twenty-five  leagues  the  heat  would  be  sufficient  to 
melt  most  rocks.  This  central  heat  has  given  rise  to  the 
supposition  that  the  interior  of  the  globe  is  in  the  condition 


176  GEOLOGY. 

of  an  igneous  fluid,  and  that  primitively  it  was  altogether  but 
one  incandescent  mass — a  supposition  which  accords  per- 
fectly well  with  the  calculations  of  astronomers,  who  demon- 
strate that  our  planet  has  precisely  the  form  which  it  must 
have  assumed  under  this  hypothesis. 

As  soon  as  the  temperature  of  the  globe  decreased,  through 
the  cessation  of  the  calorific  cause,  a  solid  crust  was  formed 
about  the  liquid  mass,  whence  resulted  a  first  mode  of  the 
formation  of  rocks,  operating  from  above  to  below,  and  which 
must  continue  until  the  whole  globe  has  grown  cool.  While 
the  planet  was  incandescent  the  atmosphere  which  surrounded 
it  was  necessarily  filled  with  an  immense  quantity  of  water 
and  sublimated  matter,  besides  the  gases  which  now  compose 
it.  In  proportion  as  the  process  of  cooling  progressed  these 
materials  would  be  deposited  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
augment  the  thickness  of  the  solid  stratum.  When  the  tem- 
perature permitted  water  to  remain  in  a  liquid  state  upon  the 
earth,  a  new  mode  of  formation  would  be  united  with  the 
other,  that  of  precipitation  and  crystallization.  Finally, 
ruptures  of  the  solid  crust  of  the  globe  must  have  taken  place 
in  consequence  of  the  pressure  of  fluids,  or  of  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  interior  parts,  diminishing  in  volume  as  they  grow 
cool. 


FIRST  EPOCH. 

A  very  dense  and  extensive  atmosphere,  produced  by  the 
volatilization  of  certain  substances,  easily  rendered  aeriform, 
such  as  water,  lead,  sulphur,  bitumen,  mercury,  zinc,  &c. ; 
temperature  and  pressure  too  great  to  permit  any  living  being 
to  be  developed;  first  cooling;  formation  of  a  solid  crust, 
tending  to  augment  every  day  in  thickness ;  formation  of  the 
superior  strata  of  the  primordial  soils,  and  of  the  mineral 
crystallizations  which  they  include ;  extensive  risings  at  the 
surface  of  the  soil ;  Plutonic  eruptions,  without  flames  or  sco- 
rified lava;  internal  effusions  between  the  strata;  termina- 
tion of  the  first  epoch,  characterized  by  the  establishment  of 
permanent  aquatic  basins. 


GEOLOGY.  177 

PRIMITIVE  EARTHS. 

The  primitive  earths  are  composed  principally  of  granitic 
rocks,  of  schist,  mica  or  talc,  and  of  amphibolous  rocks. 

Three  substances  predominate  in  the  rocks  of  the  primary 
formation  :  these  are  mica,  a  very  brilliant  mineral,  of  variable 
colour,  and  metallic  appearance,  composed  of  very  fine  leaves, 
easily  detached ;  feldzpar,  a  mineral  often  found  in  red  crys- 
tals, square  and  elongated ;  quartz,  a  rock-crystal,  and  very 
hard  body,  striking  fire  with  steel.  When  these  three  mine- 
rals are  equally  disseminated,  in  grains  more  or  less  thick,  the 
rock  which  results  is  called  granite.  As  one  of  the  three  pre- 
dominates, or  is  mixed  with  some  new  mineral,  the  rock  takes 
a  different  name.  Thus  primordial  rocks,  disposed  in  lami- 
nae, where  mica  or  talc  predominates,  sometimes  even  exclud- 
ing feldzspar,  are  termed  schistous,  micaceous,  or  talcous. 
Amphibolous  rocks  are  the  same  as  the  preceding,  with  the 
exception  that  the  mica  is  here  replaced  by  a  very  brilliant, 
greenish  mineral,  with  a  great  tendency  to  assume  elongated 
forms ;  it  is  called  amphibola. 

USEFUL  MATTERS  OF  THE  PRIMARY  FORMATION. 

Massive  granite,  fit  to  be  carved  into  columns,  and  other 
stone  work  of  great  dimensions. 

Kaolin  and  petunze,  of  which  porcelain  is  made. 

Fine  rock  quartz,  proper  for  the  fabrication  of  crystal. 

The  fine  statuary  marble,  cipolin,  verd-antique. 

White  gypsous  alabaster,  of  ancient  formation. 

Topaz,  amethyst,  &c. 

Muscovy  glass. 

Labrador  and  Amazon  stone. 


SECOND  EPOCH. 

Appearance    of  organized   beings — 1st.    Vegetables;    2d. 

Aquatic  marine  animals ;  3d.  Amphibious  reptiles ;  tremors 

of  the  earth  and  frequent  swellings,  producing  only  extensive 

undulations  upon  the  surface,  and  no  high  mountains,  as  yet; 

x 


178  GEOLOGY. 

seas  of  but  little  depth ;  numerous  and  very  wide  lakes  and 
rivers ;  a  gigantic  vegetation  of  ferns  and  other  acotyledonous 
plants ;  at  a  later  period  monocotyledonous  ones ;  formation 
of  coal  and  lignites ;  plu tonic  eruptions,  without  scorified  lava; 
metalliferous  injections  in  veins ;  internal  effusions  between 
the  strata ;  atmosphere  rendered  less  thick,  in  consequence  of 
the  cooling  of  certain  volatilizable  matters,  which  are  precipi- 
tated upon  the  earth,  such  as  mercury,  zinc,  lead,  sulphur 
and  bitumen. 

EARTHS  FORMED  DURING  THE  SECOND  EPOCH, 

EARTH  OF  TRANSITION  FORMED  UNDER  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FIRE  AND 

WATER. 
SCHIST. 

Rocks  arranged  in  laminae,  or  dividing  easily  in  flags,  like 
slates.  The  schists  of  Angiers  present  impressions  of  very 
simple  animals,  belonging  to  the  class  of  Crustacea,  but  en- 
tirely different  from  all  those  known  at  present.  In  these 
strata  we  meet  with  touch-stone,  oil-stone,  black-lead,  red- 
lead,  alum,  vitriol,  anthracite,  numerous  veins  of  copper,  lead, 
zinc  and  iron;  mercury,  with  bitumen,  is  found  in  the  upper 
portions. 

CALX. 

Thick  beds,  including  the  greater  part  of  the  marbles  with 
mixed  colours,  such  as  the  gray  and  black,  also  the  small 
granite,  among  others,  remarkable  on  account  of  the  round 
and  white  spots,  in  the  shape  of  stars,  formed  by  fossil,  Radi- 
ata,  called  Encrinites.  The  most  extensive  iron  mines  are 
found  between  these  calcareous  beds  and  the  primary  forma- 
tion; hence  also  spring  the  greater  number  of  the  mineral 
waters. 

COAL.     FREESTONE. 

The  transition  freestone  and  pudding-stone  are  generally 
sterile.  They  are  advantageously  employed  in  carving  or 
building.  The  pudding-stone  sometimes  forms  also  excellent 
mill-stones,  and  the  freestone  good  whet-stones.  The  pre- 
sence of  coal  is  announced  by  black  rocks,  and  impressions 
of  vegetables  resembling  large  Ferns. 


GEOLOGY.  179 

INFERIOR  SECONDARY  EARTH. 
VARIEGATED  FREESTONE. 

Thus  called  on  account  of  their  gray  or  reddish  colour, 
sometimes  mixed.  They  are  mingled  with  pudding-stones 
and  schistous  marl,  presenting  great  variety  of  shade,  which 
has  procured  for  them  the  name  of  rainbow  marl.  Some  ve- 
getable fossils  are  here  found,  but  no  animal. 

ALPINE  CALX  OR  LIAS. 

Tints  uniformly  gray  or  blackish ;  a  compact  paste  rarely 
granulated,  including  much  clay.  Here  are  found  many 
fossil  shells  (the  arcuated  Grypheus,  a  kind  of  Oyster,  flexed 
in  form  of  a  bow) ;  rock  salt  belongs  to  this  formation,  but  more 
especially  to  the  variegated  freestone  and  the  rainbow  marl. 

JURASSIC  OR  OOLITHIC  CALX. 

This  latter  name  has  been  given  to  them  because  they 
appear  to  form  small  round  granules  like  fish  eggs.  We 
here  find  the  following  fossils.  Icthyosaurus,  the  head  of  a 
lizard,  but  prolonged  into  a  tapering  muzzle,  armed  with 
pointed  and  conical  teeth ;  vertebral  column  organized  as  in 
fish;  pelvis  small  and  weak;  four  limbs,  of  which  the  hume- 
rus  and  femur  are  thick  and  short,  and  the  other  bones,  which 
are  flattened  and  close  together,  compose,  when  enveloped 
by  the  skin,  fins  analogous  to  those  of  the  Cetacea.  They 
live  in  the  sea  and  crawl  with  difficulty.  Plesiosaurus,  limbs 
a  little  more  elongated  and  more  flexible  than  in  the  preced- 
ing ;  shoulder  and  pelvis  more  robust ;  neck  slender,  as  long 
as  the  body,  composed  of  thirty  vertebra  and  some  more,  and 
terminated  by  a  very  small  head.  Megalosaurus,  form  like 
that  of  the  Monitor ;  size  so  enormous  that  if  we  suppose  the 
the  same  proportions  as  in  the  Monitor,  it  must  exceed  seventy 
feet  in  length.  Pterodactylus,  tail  very  short;  neck  very 
long ;  head  large ;  excessive  elongation  of  the  second  toe  of 
the  fore-foot,  which  is  more  than  twice  as  long  as  the  body, 
and  probably  served  to  sustain  some  membrane  which  aided 
the  animal  in  flying.  The  remains  of  two  species  are  found, 
one  of  which  might  have  been  about  the  size  of  a  common 
bat,  the  other  of  a  thrush. 


180  GEOLOGY.. 

SUPERIOR  SECONDARY  EARTH. 
GREEN  FREESTONE. 

Characterized  by  small  grains  of  green  matter  found  dis- 
seminated therein. 

CRETACEOUS  EARTH. 

Thick  and  numerous  strata,  covering  entire  countries,  and 
having  two  varieties ;  the  one  like  chalk  properly  so  called, 
that  is  to  say  white,  soft  and  tolerably  friable;  the  other  al- 
together hard,  and  supplying  fine  stone  for  sculpture  and  even 
true  marble.  Here  are  found  Oysters,  and  Rudistes,  very 
irregular  shells  resembling  horns  diversely  flexed,  and  with 
uneven  surface. 


THIRD  EPOCH. 

Great  swellings  or  erections;  sinking  of  valleys;  displace- 
ment of  seas  and  lakes;  extinction  of  a  great  number  of  or- 
ganized beings;  appearance  of  new  species,  such  as  large 
mammiferous  quadrupeds  (Cetacea  and  Pachydermata) ;  at 
the  same  time  appear  insects  and  fresh  water  fish;  remark- 
able progression  in  the  vegetable  kingdom ;  the  dicotyledonous 
plants  are  more  numerous  than  the  acotyledonous  and  mono- 
cotyledonous ;  volcanic  phenomena  more  strongly  character- 
ized than  during  the  two  first  epochs ;  trachytic  and  basaltic 
eruptions,  with  productions  more  or  less  bullous  and  scorified. 

EARTHS  OF  THE  THIRD  EPOCH. 

INFERIOR  TERTIARY  EARTH. 
MARINE  FORMATION. 

i':'.  '„; 

Coarse  Cah,  composed  of  calcareous  layers  of  marine  for- 
mation, between  which  are  inserted  accidentally  some  beds 
of  fluviatile  formation.  One  of  these  fresh  water  deposits  is 
oftqn  found  in  the  inferior  portion ;  it  is  that  of  plastic  day ; 
it  is  succeeded  by  strata  of  clay,  marl,  and  sand,  in  the  midst 
of  which  are  piles  of  lignite.  Coarse  calx  is  the  building 
stone  of  the  Parisians. 


GEOLOGY.  181 

FRESH  WATER  FORMATION. 

Gypsous  marl  and  silicious  cah,  composed  of  beds  of  marl 
with  Lymnese  and  of  a  compact  calx  with  a  fine  grain  impreg- 
nated with  silex,  in  the  midst  of  which  are  interspersed  ovoid 
masses  of  gypsum  containing  numerous  bones  of  terrestrial 
Mammalia  (Palseotherum,  Anoplotherum).  The  shells  in- 
cluded in  gypsous  marl  are  particularly  those  called  Lymnese, 
Cyclostomes,  Planorbes  and  other  fluviatile  Mollusca.  The 
Pal&othera,  are  Pachydermata  intermediate  between  the  Tapir 
and  the  Rhinoceros ;  bone  of  the  nose  very  short,  and  seem- 
ing to  require  a  little  proboscis ;  six  incisors  and  two  canines 
in  each  jaw ;  feet  divided  into  three  toes ;  seven  species  are 
found  in  the  lime-pits  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  of  which  the 
greater  portion  are  about  the  size  of  a  Horse,  the  rest  of  a 
Hog,  Sheep  or  Hare.  The  Anoplothera  are  Pachydermata 
remarkable  on  account  of  teeth  in  a  continued  series,  as  we 
find  in  the  Bimana  family,  contiguous  and  without  interval, 
and  on  account  of  an  unique  organization  of  a  cloven  foot 
where  the  metatarsian  and  metacarpian  bones  are  not  united 
in  a  cannon.  The  best  known  species  of  these  animals,  which 
are  peculiar  to  the  lime-pits  and  coarse  calx  in  the  vicinity  of 
Paris,  resembled  a  large  Otter,  and  frequented  lakes,  in  the 
bottom  of  which  its  bones  are  found  incrusted  in  gypsum. 

SUPERIOR  TERTIARY  EARTH. 
MARINE  FORMATION. 

Sands  and  marine  freestone  of  Fontainebleau ;  sands  strati- 
fied in  distinct  beds,  ferruginous  and  micaceous;  very  hard 
banks  of  freestone  with  marine  shells  in  the  superior  portions 
of  the  deposit. 

FRESH- WATER  FORMATION. 

Superior  fresh-water  calx  and  mill-stone.  Mill-stone  is  the 
name  given  to  a  silex  indented  with  a  multitude  of  irregular 
cavities,  supplied  with  silicious  filaments  arranged  much  like 
the  reticulated  tissue  of  bones,  and  spread  with  an  ochrous 
plaster;  these  cavities  are  often  filled  with  clayey  marl  or 
sand,  and  have  no  communication. 


182  GEOLOGY. 

FOURTH  EPOCH. 

Universal  deluge ;  appearance  of  aerolites ;  trains  of  erratic 
masses;  beds  of  rolled  flints ;  change  in  the  astronomical  posi- 
tion of  the  planet;  extinction  of  many  races  of  large  animals; 
new  races  smaller;  volcanic  phenomena  very  powerful;  erec- 
tion of  the  highest  mountains;  appearance  of  Man  upon  the 
globe;  local  inundations;  sinking  of  valleys  at  various  stages ; 
diminution  of  intensity  in  volcanic  phenomena;  actual  period. 

EARTHS  OF  THE  FOURTH  EPOCH. 

DILUVIAL  EARTH. 

This  earth  is  composed  exclusively  of  sand  and  rotted  flints 
mingled  without  regular  stratification.  Diluvial  deposits  are 
most  usually  accompanied  with  erratic  masses.  This  appel- 
lation is  given  to  enormous  fragments  of  rock  more  or  less 
rounded  at  their  angles ;  some  are  known  which  weigh  as 
much  as  three  hundred  thousand  kilogrammes.  These  va- 
rious materials  are  generally  in  a  movable  condition;  some- 
times, however,  we  see  sands  and  flints  cemented  by  a  marlous 
or  ferruginous  clay  introduced  by  infiltrations  which  still 
continue  at  some  points.  This  earth  includes  no  remains  of 
those  singular  animals  which  abound  in  the  tertiary  soil. 
Pachydermata,  however,  still  prevail  [the  Mammoth,  Masto- 
don, Rhinoceros,  Hippopotamus,  Tapir].  These  Pachyder- 
mata are  attended  with  numerous  remains  of  Horses,  large 
Ruminantia  [Stags,  Oxen] ;  remains  are  also  found  of  Hyenas, 
Bears,  Tigers,  &c.  In  caverns,  called  bony  gaps,  in  the  midst 
of  a  red  cement,  we  also  find  remains  of  two  gigantic  Edentata, 
the  Megatherium  and  Megalonyx. 

FOSSIL  ELEPHANT.     RUSSIAN  MAMMOTH. 

From  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet  high ;  covered  with  a  thick 
reddish  wool,  and  with  long,  stiff  and  black  hairs,  forming  a 
crest  along  the  back ;  enormous  tusks  implanted  in  alveoli 
longer  than  those  of  our  Elephants;  in  other  respects  it  re- 
sembles the  Indian  Elephant.  It  has  left  thousands  of  car- 
cases from  Spain  to  the  extremity  of  Siberia,  and  some  are 
found  in  every  part  of  North  America.  Its  tusks  are  so  well 


GEOLOGY.  183 

preserved  in  cold  countries  that  they  are  employed  for  the 
same  purposes  as  ivory. 

GENUS  MASTODON. 

These  animals  had  feet,  tusks,  trunk,  and  many  other  de- 
tails of  conformation  in  common  with  Elephants.  They  dif- 
fered from  these  in  the  jaws;  where  the  crown,  bristled  at  its 
issuing  from  the  gum  with  thick  conical  points,  presented,  in 
proportion  to  its  detrition,  disks  more  or  less  wide,  which 
represented  the  cups  of  these  points.  Remains  of  these  ani- 
mals have  been  found  in  both  continents.  The  most  remark- 
able species,  and  one  which  appears  peculiar  to  America,  is 
the  great  Mastodon,  whose  height  is  about  nine  feet ;  the 
proportions  of  the  body  are  more  heavy  than  those  of  either 
the  Fossil  Elephant  or  the  Elephant  of  our  days.  There 
was  an  error  in  regarding  it  as  carnivorous. 

GENUS  RHINOCEROS. 

There  were  three  large  Rhinoceroses,  all  two-horned. 
The  species  most  widely  scattered,  in  Germany  and  England, 
and  which,  like  the  Elephant,  is  found  even  near  the  shores 
of  the  Frozen  Ocean,  where  it  has  also  left  entire  individuals, 
had  the  head  elongated,  the  bones  of  the  nose  robust,  sustained 
by  a  bony  nostril  partition,  not  one  simply  cartilaginous ;  it 
was  destitute  of  incisives. 
* 

GENUS  MEGATHERIUM. 

This  united  a  part  of  the  generic  character  of  the  Arma- 
dillo with  some  of  those  of  the  Sloth,  and  in  height  equalled 
the  largest  Rhinoceros ;  its  claws  must  have  been  of  a  mon- 
strous length  and  strength ;  all  the  skeleton  is  of  excessive 
solidity.  As  yet  none  have  been  disinterred  except  in  the 
sandy  strata  of  South  America. 

POST-DILUVIAL  EARTH. 

This  earth  comprehends  the  products  of  present  volcanoesr 
glaciers,  morasses,  deposits  of  lake  salt,  modern  formations 
of  sand  and  calx,  fluviatile  and  marine  alluvions,  deposits  of 
springs  incrusting  banks  with  Mollusca  and  Zoophytes, 
flinty  and  muddy  deposits,  and  finally  modern  turfs,  and  the 
vegetable  mould.  The  organic  remains  here  met  with  belong 


184  GEOLOGY. 

to  species  analogous  with  those  existing  in  the  countries  where 
they  are  discovered.  It  is  here  only  that  we  meet  with  human 
remains,  a  fact  clearly  proving  the  recent  appearance  of  Man 
upon  the  earth. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  STRATA. 

Massive  granitic  earth. 

Stratified  granitic  earth,  disposed  in  beds  or  layers. 

Materials  vomited  by  the  central  fire,  and  arranged  either 
at  the  surface  or  within  the  beds.  They  may  be  designated 
by  the  following  names :  first  and  second  epoch,  plutonic 
rocks  (porphyry  and  serpentine);  third  epoch,  volcanic 
rocks  (trachyte,  basalt) ;  fourth  epoch,  volcanic  rocks  (lava). 

Aquatic  basins. 


INDEX. 


A. 

Aphis,                    '    -.  •      •'*--£ 

-      133 

Apoda,                    -•'*,<'     '"'.  *•"•"'. 

-      143 

Absorption, 

13    Apocarps,      •-      ••'"--'       .« 

-      166 

Abranchiatee,                     "    «  - 

Ill    Aptenodytes,                       ,  **J 

-        75 

Acephala,      -  - 

:•••'.      27    Aptera,                      W     "'  »y 

-      124 

Acipenser,     -  ,-     .  ••'  J^       '  -v  . 

^  "-  :     98    Aquila,       -^-^         wV     ^^  . 

60 

Acephala,      .--'.,         -.•> 

*-      106    Arm,          :  '.v     '  •\f>;  ."^ 

18 

1  o/\        .       i  . 

OO 

Aculeata, 

i-**v/     jr\.rfiDiniij                                     - 
.-K   137    Articulata,     - 

22 
28 

Acalepha, 

144    Arachnides,                            -^ 

28 

Acrydium,     -          ''••?-'    *";'••-- 

131    Arvicola,      v--                      .>; 

45 

Accessory  Organs,    - 

-      158    Ara,                        t  ,,;    i?.5S^ 

68 

Achcenium, 

.:.  '••-    167    Argonauta,    -                   .  ;  ^ 

-      103 

Agama,      [  *  .nrt  •  W*    ' 

•?:       81     Arachnides,               -         .  '.*•- 

-      116 

Aerial  Cavities, 

•!v*v    150    Araneides,    - 

•      117 

Alfourous,    *  -~ 

;    --       24     Aranea,                  "    '-J     **^ 

*      118 

Alauda, 

r-  •*••      64    Arillus, 

-      170 

Alcedo, 

;•*•      66    Astacus,         -  ^                      ..  ' 

r      115 

'  j  •••".       68    Auchenia       -  - 

f'-t 

Alca, 

75    Aves, 

ol 

1  'v»f.      57 

Albumen,      ^  - 

-v,    170    Avicula,         *-. 

•      107 

Alpine,                                :-'-^ 

V,    179 

Americans,  N. 

*,:        25 

Americans,  S. 

l*»y     25                                   B. 

Amphibia,     -'-^ 

•frr*.    41 

Ampelis,        -- 

62    Bacca,                     ;  iJ',    '  -s-^; 

-      169 

Amphisboena, 

y  ?-?<^  83    Bark, 

-,     153 

Amphi  trite, 

L-»i    110    Barbus,                      V^-  '  ^  -^ 

-        91 

Amphipoda, 

-      115    Batrachia,      -                     '•^•.-. 

-       85 

Animalia  Vertebrata, 

26    Baloena,         *-                      -.T 

*      56 

Annulata, 

28    Bipes, 

.  .-.«      82 

Anas,             -v 

77     Bittern,                               *   '*,. 

72 

Anser,                       .'*- 

77    BloodVessels, 

10 

Anguina,       '** 

--       83    Bos,     . 

54 

Animalia  Mollusca, 

101     Bombus, 

-      138 

Anodontea, 

107    Bombyces,     - 

-      139 

Animalia  Reticulata, 

ir    109    Botany, 

-      149 

Anobium, 

-      128    Brachocera, 

-      140 

Animalia  Radiata,     - 

-      142    Brachyura,     - 

-      114 

Annular  Vessels, 

-      149    Bradypus,      - 

46 

Anther, 

164    Brachypterro,        '    +• 

75 

Apparatus,    - 

16    Bulbils, 

-      156 

Aphrodita,     - 

111    Bulbs, 

155 

Y 

186 


INDEX. 


Buds, 

-      155 

Cicindela, 

vr       126 

Bufo, 

86 

Cincl  us, 

62 

Buteo, 

60 

Classification, 

26 

Clupese, 

93 

Clotho,                       -  !' 

-      118 

C. 

Clavicornes, 

-      128 

Conirostres,               —  ' 

63 

Cathartes,    •- 

'*•-'<:•'       -        59 

Corvus, 

64 

Capra, 

^       54 

Cor  ax, 

64 

Caprimulgus, 

^-.       63 

Cockatoo,  -   -           *        '.  ,-.-. 

68 

Camelopardalis, 

53 

Coturnix,       - 

70 

Caraelus, 

51 

Columba,       -            -            ^ 

70 

Cavia, 

46 

Colymbus,     -                         • 

75 

Castor, 

45 

Coluber, 

84 

Campagnols, 

45 

Conger,         ... 

95 

39 

Conus,           -            -            - 

-      105 

Garni  vora,     - 

.  ->        -        36 

Coleoptera,                           \*  x< 

-      125 

Carnaria,       -  • 

•-*-•''*     -     33 

Coccinella,    - 

-      129 

Caucasian,    -           '•  - 

21 

Coccus,                              v.,"'" 

-      133 

Carpus, 

-        18 

Coralliferi,     - 

-      146 

Casuarius,     --; 

71 

Cone, 

.      159 

Catostomus, 

91 

Corymb, 

-       160 

Cancer, 

-      114 

Corolla,     .',-.»  - 

-      163 

Carabus, 

-      126 

Coal, 

.y.*      178 

Cantharis, 

..*?•     129 

Crustacea, 

-        28 

Calandra, 

,.      129 

Cricetus,     ,  -  - 

44 

Carnosi, 

niSte*    145 

Crocodilida,             -,.*  -v    •  .  *- 

80 

-           -      106 

Crotalus,       -  -          -    * 

84 

Catkin, 

-      159 

Crepuscularia,           -  -         •*?»»• 

-      139 

Capitule, 

•.;.**«  leo 

Cremocarpium, 

-      168 

Calyx, 

-      163 

Cretaceous  Earth,     - 

-      180 

Carpels, 

-      164 

Cuculus,       ... 

67 

Cariopsis, 

-      167 

Cultrirostres, 

71 

Capsula, 

-      168 

Cursoria, 

-      130 

Calx,         ,     - 

'  y    178 

Culex, 

-'     140 

Cerebral  System, 

13 

Cuhn, 

-      154 

Cerebrum,     -  / 

13 

Cygnus,         -  r 

77 

Cerebellum, 

-        13 

Cyprinus, 

91 

Cephalopoda,             • 

27 

Cypreea, 

-      106 

Cercopithecus, 

"-        31 

Cynips, 

-      137 

Cebus, 

32 

Cypesela,     ,  -  - 

-      168 

52 

C  VTllOCCulltlluS           ;    '-'•'"»               - 

QO 

Cetacea, 

54 

O/w 

Certhia, 

65 

Cells, 

-      149 

D. 

Chinese, 

-v     23 

Chymification, 

*a?       12 

Dactylopterus, 

89 

Chylification, 

12 

Dentirostres, 

61 

Cheiroptera, 

•        33 

Decapoda,     -^ 

-      113 

Charadrius, 

71 

Dermestes, 

-      128 

Chelonia, 

79 

Diurnal, 

58 

Chamseleonida, 

82 

Diomedea,     - 

79 

Chirotes, 

82 

Diodon,          -             ... 

97 

Cicada, 

-      133 

Diurna, 

-       138 

Circulation, 

10 

Diptera,       .*». 

-      140 

Cimex, 

-      132 

Diluvial  Earth, 

-      182 

INDEX. 


187 


Dorsibranchiata, 

ir      111 

VJicuiv^"  y  . 

Glans, 

-i<"* 
-      168 

-      107 

Glareola, 

-,-:'*&& 

Graft, 

-      161 

Gryllo, 

-      131 

| 

Gymnotus, 

95 

Echinodermata, 

-      142 

Gymnodantes, 

-Art*-*9* 

Echidna, 

48 

Gypactos,      ** 

59 

Edentata,       -> 

46 

*        .  :" 

Elephas,       ^ 

49 

Emys, 

»*»,      79 

H. 

Emberiza, 

r        64 

"A.     ^  •»      '      *           .-      /  :'  v 

Embryo, 

-      170 

Hands, 

18 

Encephalum, 

A       13 

Hairs, 

-      151 

Engraulis, 

93 

•     ^<W 

Entozoa, 

t.;rir  ,      ->*•     143 

Hearing, 

14 

Ephemera,    - 

.*,     134 

Helix, 

-      104 

Epidermis,     - 

-      151 

Hemiptera, 

-      132 

Erinaceus,     - 

•:.  .*..         35 

Heteroptera, 

-      132 

Ethiopian  Variety, 

>.-        24 

Herbaceous  Graft,    - 

-      162 

Equus,           ? 

,*>      50 

Hesperidium, 

-      168 

Head, 

17 

Hindoos, 

~Afe*ll 

F. 

Hilobates, 

31 

Histrix,          -                     •.;•••*?* 

45 

Felis, 

-.       .,-.,       40 

Hierofalco,    - 

59 

Fingers, 

19 

Hirundo, 

63 

Fibres, 

-      150 

Hippocampus, 

96 

Filament, 

-      164 

Hirudo, 

-      112 

Flower, 

-      162 

Homogenea, 

-      146 

Formica, 

-      137 

Homoptera, 

-      133 

Foot, 

19 

120 

Folliculum, 

',-.-.           167 

Hottentots, 

24 

Formation,  Marine 

'•-...    180 

Hyperborean, 

23 

Fossil  Elephant, 

-            -I     182 

Hypsiprymnus, 

42 

Freestone, 

>  .   178 

Hyla, 

86 

Fringilla, 

•*       64 

Hymenoptera, 

-      136 

Fruit, 

:.'?       166 

Francolinus, 

.-.       69 

Fulica, 

'  V?       73 

I. 

Fuligula, 

78 

.vi*?f    ''t,v     ,    .. 

Ichneumon, 

-      136 

Iguanida, 

81 

G. 

Iguana, 

81 

Inclusa, 

-      108 

Gad  us, 

&  '  a         93 

121 

Gallus, 

-       69 

Insectivora,                -.^ 

35 

Garrulus,       -            *^ 

,e~      64 

Inuus,                                  ".    •"- 

31 

Gavial, 

80 

Insalivation,               -.          -„ 

12 

Gasteropoda, 

"    v   103 

Isopoda, 

-      116 

Gallinula,      ~i  - 

.   .^       74 

Geckotida,    - 

"  •"       82 

Gecarcinus, 

..     114 

J.       % 

Germans,       -, 

21 

Germen, 

V;"       '      164 

Jurassic, 

-      179 

188 


INDEX. 


\ 

K. 

Megatherium,                         *  - 

_ 

8*U      -            *      •".  * 

Melolontha,  - 

_ 

Koala, 

*5r         43 

Merluccius    -           '  •  •"        ^  * 

Merlangus,    -                     y.Ofi 

. 

Milvus, 

•  •- 

L. 

Motacilla, 

. 

Monodon, 

. 

Lacertinida, 

wte       81 

Monotremata, 

. 

Lacerta, 

•-*'       81 

Mongolian,    - 

. 

Lab  rax,         '- 

89 

Moniliform  Vessels,  - 

- 

Lampyris, 

-      127 

Mollusca, 

. 

Lamellicornes, 

-      128 

Morrhua, 

. 

Larus, 

-w  .     76 

Monitor, 

•.» 

'••*'      62 

16 

MursBna,        ... 

Leg,                            - 

19 

Musca, 

. 

-*•       33 

Muscular  Apparatus 

- 

Lepus, 

;;&.    45 

Mu  stela, 

. 

Leuciscus,     - 

91 

Mus, 

- 

Lepidoptera, 

;>V:-    138 

Myrmecophaga, 

c--~ 

Lenticles, 

•••--     151 

Myoxus, 

- 

Legumen,      -  " 

-      167 

Mycetes, 

- 

Limosa, 

^        73 

Myrmeleon,  - 

- 

Limax, 

*••    104 

Myriapoda,    - 

- 

Libellula,      - 

-      134 

My  gale, 

- 

Ligneous  Layers, 

-      153 

My  til  us, 

- 

Locomotion,                            •  , 

15 

Mytilacea,     - 

- 

Lungs, 

--       1  1 

1                  •     •*  • 

Lutra, 

?<*        38 

Lumbrici, 

*•'     111 

N. 

Lucanus, 

'-*'*.     128 

-  "  ••  •  '      '-v,  ~    •' 

Locusta, 

-      131 

Naia, 

- 

Lycosa, 

^    119 

Negroes, 

. 

- 

Nematoidea,  - 

- 

Nemocera,     - 

- 

M. 

Neuroptera,  - 

y-tir 

Nepa, 

•**$• 

Macropus,     - 

*'-."i'       43 

Nerves, 

- 

Mangusta,     - 

40 

Nervo-Cerebral  System, 

- 

Macroura, 

-      115 

Nervous  System, 

IHiic 

Mantis, 

-      130 

Numidia, 

- 

Marine  Foundation, 

-      180 

Nuda, 

••& 

Mastodon,     -' 

i'.*v-    J83 

Nudibranchiata, 

- 

Manatus, 

•^        55 

Nocturna,   ''"*••- 

- 

Manis, 

in-     47 

Marsupialia,  - 

42 

Malays, 

23 

O. 

Mastication,  - 

^        12 

Members, 

.-,-.       18 

Oniscus, 

. 

Metatarsus,  - 

'•&•>       19 

Ornithorhynchus, 

- 

Megaderma,  - 

V       34 

Ortyx, 

- 

Meles, 

:*      37 

Orycteropus, 

- 

Mephitis, 

v-        38 

Oriolus, 

- 

Msenura,        -                         -  ;  - 

-*  •      62 

Organic  Life, 

• 

Merops, 

-        66 

Osmerus, 

,#*j 

Meleagris,     <•  * 

*;       69 

Ophidia,       :;•;»  ^ 

- 

Mergus,        r* 

t  ^       75 

Ostracion,  "  *  ;         '*• 

- 

183 
128 
94 
94 
60 
62 
55 
47 

150 
101 


95 
141 

38 
44 

44 

135 
124 
118 

107 

107 


84 

144 
140 
134 
132 


84 
105 
139 


116 

48 
70 
47 
62 
15 
93 
82 
97 


INDEX. 


189 


Ostracea, 

,=  -..*     107 

Pipa, 

"..,-.:<;  an. 

Ostrea, 

,-      107 

Picus, 

•v-™»*l 

Otis, 

:  -.     71 

Pica, 

64 

,-,       go 

Pinra 

f»O 

Ouistitis, 

<*:      32 

A  iprd., 

Pleropus, 

"  -  •-•          Do 

p*fay*!M 

Ovis, 

,.-:                54 

Plantigrada,  - 

Fr^fi 

Plectognathi, 

nr/.    -;^;c;-;:96 

Planipennes, 

>-     135 

P. 

Pleuronectes, 

-  -    »» 

Plumula, 

-      170 

Pacliydermata, 

.        48 

Passerinae,     - 

•>.'      61 

Podiceps, 

75 

Parus, 

.<<*.(       64 

Portunus, 

-      114 

Paradisaea,     - 

-      •:.-,     64 

Pollen, 

-      164 

Palmipedes,  - 

>>V       74 

Pomum, 

-      169 

Parra, 

...        73 

Polyommatus, 

-      139 

Pavo, 

„>•.       68 

Post-Diluvial  Earth,  - 

„  |P99       -      183 

Paroquet, 

,M\       68 

Prickles, 

-      158 

Pagurus, 

-      115 

Prionus, 

-      129 

Palasmon, 

115 

99 

Palinurus, 

-      115 

Pressirostres, 

T.":-''  31 

Platessa, 

.':**          94 

Porphyris, 

;   »u-^^| 

Parasita, 

.ti«     124 

Proteus, 

87 

Papilio, 

-      138 

Procellaria,    - 

-y  --W 

Parnassus, 

-      138 

Proboscidiana, 

48 

Parenchymata, 

-      144 

Procyon, 

37 

Panicle, 

-      160 

Psittacus, 

./;»;,         67 

Pectinibranchiata, 

-      105 

Pteromys, 

•  •a.'^il 

Pepo, 

-      169 

Putorius, 

:»->-«;jB§ 

Pericarp, 

-      166 

Principal  Arteries,    - 

w£l| 

Pentatome,    - 

-      132 

Pulmonea,     - 

-      104 

Pentamera,    - 

-      126 

Purpura, 

-      106 

Pediculus, 

-      124 

Pulmonaria,  - 

-      117 

Pedipalpi, 

..'..-      119 

Pulex, 

-      125 

Pelvis, 

/<*,  .    18 

Polyommatus, 

-      139 

Pelasgians,    - 

/W      22 

Punctuated  Vessels, 

-      150 

Percnopterus, 

59 

Pyxidium, 

-      168 

Pcecilia, 

..«*       92 

Perdix, 

69 

Pelecanus,     - 

77 

Q. 

Percoides,      -            -  , 

88 

Petromyzion, 

99 

Quadrumana, 

-':..:"» 

Pith, 

-      153 

Physiology,   - 

9 

Phyllostoma, 

34 

R. 

Phoca, 

'.•;:=4i       41 

Phalangista,  - 

42 

Rapaceae,       -« 

•    4  -•       -       58 

Phascolomes, 

<•«       43 

Rallus, 

73 

Physeter, 

-t       55 

Rana,           -:*~  '        — 

85 

Phocena, 

56 

Radiata, 

-      142 

Phasianus, 

>--        69 

Raceme, 

-      160 

Phcenicopterus, 

r*l         74 

Radicle,       ^~  ;     -.  - 

-      170 

Phronima, 

-?      116 

Respiration,  -            — 

-•-,piil 

Phizoma, 

-      154 

Recurvirostra, 

73 

Pisces, 

87 

Reptilia, 

78 

190 


INDEX. 


Reticular  Vessels, 

-      150 

Sturiones, 

>-      98 

Reservoir,     -         .   ?  - 

-,-,    150 

Squalus, 

98 

Rhinolophus, 

34 

Spike, 

-      159 

Rhinoceros,  - 

-  .     49 

Sphinx, 

i-  *..      139 

Rhinoceros,  Fossil,   - 

-      183 

Spadix,         :f*^' 

-      159 

Rhombus,      -          •>-      -".'••*-, 

94 

Stomata,        -            -  -= 

-      151 

Rhamphastos,            -            -  ,f 

67 

Stem, 

-      152 

Ricinus,        »  ••'.-                    '-    r 

xr*:     124 

Stipe, 

-      154 

Root, 

v.«      151 

Stipules,     ,    -           >*i 

-      158 

Rotifera, 

.&     146 

Stamens, 

•-      163 

Rodentia, 

v       43 

Style, 

rs-jj      165 

Ruminantia,  - 

.v*.        50 

r»i.         165 

Strobilus, 

T.--          -       169 

Strata,  Explanation  of, 

.;-.->     184 

S. 

Spermoderm,          .    --•••- 

-      170 

Sublicornes,  - 

«=,    134 

Sarcoramphus,                  i..;.*iU 

.-Hfr      58 

Suctoria,      ..--•• 

-      125 

Sauria,           ... 

^       80 

Suctorii, 

.i-r       99 

Salamandra, 

,u       86 

Sula, 

-,«       77 

Salmonides,  ... 

*       92 

Sus, 

Tw.       49 

98 

gynornathus, 

T-..,       7  n        96 

Saltatoria,     X- 

-      331 

Syndactilae,  - 

,p--.       66 

Samara,          ... 

,^     167 

Syrnium, 

,pj       61 

Schist, 

liuii1.    178 

Scarabaeus,    - 

iteev     128 

Scorpio, 

-      319 

T. 

Sclerodermi, 

,-«<-      97 

Scomberoides, 

,4-f..      90 

Taste, 

.ftitci-?  --i.       14 

Scincoidcd     .             .             • 

?•«  ,     82 

s.        19 

Scolopax,       -                     ^-ji»fjJi 

.  W       73 

Tapir, 

,71'       50 

Scansorise,    - 

;j<ji».        66 

Talpa, 

ttf»i      35 

Scops, 

„*;       61 

Tardigrada,   - 

u«       46 

Scirus, 

43 

Tanagra, 

,^.       62 

Scythian  Branch, 

22 

Tachypetes,  - 

77 

Semnopithecus, 

,;;;K:        31 

Taliprus, 

-      116 

Serpentia,  _  -                        - 

J.--V*       83 

Tenuirostres, 

.....        65 

Selachii,     "  - 

,y:*        98 

Tetrao, 

"-»&  ..--.       69 

Sepia, 

-      103 

Testudo,        --:. 

r.       79 

Serricornes,  - 

-      127 

Testacella,     - 

-.     104 

Shoulder,       -            -.£* 

19 

Teredo, 

^.B      108 

Sight, 

15 

Thorax,         V,  ^ 

-        11 

Simia,           ;  -s-v    ..'  — 

W3R           30 

Thigh, 

ii-^r         10 

Sitta, 

65 

Thynnus, 

90 

Siluridae, 

92 

Tinea, 

^       91 

Simplicia,      • 

-      144 

Touch, 

14 

Siliqua, 

-      168 

Totipalmata, 

-f,      76 

Skeleton, 

\#*      16 

Toes, 

19 

Smell, 

14 

Trachea, 

-.      11 

Solipedes,      ... 

-.      50 

Trunk, 

^       17 

Sorex, 

J&.     35 

Trichecus,     - 

41 

Solea, 

94 

Trochilus,     -- 

65 

Sorus,            «*^ 

-      169 

Trionyx, 

80 

Strix, 

60 

Triton, 

86 

Struthio, 

71 

Trigla, 

89 

Sterna, 

76 

Turdus,         -        '  fejj 

-.          -        62 

Umbel, 

Unio,          '    . 

Uria, 

Ursus,  * 

Uranoscopus, 


U. 


INDEX. 

Vespertilio, 
Venomous, 
160    Vespa, 
107    Vipera, 
75     Viverra, 
36    Vultur, 


191 

34 
84 
137 
84 
39 
58 


V. 

Vaginalis,      - 

Vanellus, 

Vaginulus,     - 

Vanessa, 

Variegated  Freestone, 


X. 


Xiphias, 

74 

71 
104 
139 
179  Yunx, 


90 


67 


THE  END. 


C'pert  aurtolt 


PHYSIOLOG 


PJ.I 


ian  arfcry 


fa/r 


Thoraci 


PHYSIOLOGY 


PHYSIOLOGY 


a  - 


v- 


BOTAJVV. 


fasti*. 


P&rtioal 

trunk  ofr  $ria,r. 


Trachea  of  a  re>0t  0f 


BOTANY 


Pi. 


'frun 


PL 


3 


BOTANY 


PI 


Cont. 


JJati. 


Catiu*. 


f.  S  .Burnt.  LttH,  ftulf 


BOTANY, 


Pi. 


.*. 


FOSSILS 


11.4,9 


